Depressive mood states and their cognitive and personality correlates in college students: They improve over time

Abstract

About 30% of 171 college student respondents reported at least mild dysphoria. Depressed mood states were associated with dysfunctional attitudes and self‐esteem problems, but not with gender or self‐reported problem‐solving ability. Findings about sex role orientation were mixed. The freshmen reported the highest levels of dysphoria, problem‐solving difficulties, and dysfunctional attitudes, but there appeared to be consistent, gradual improvements, such that by the senior year students reported significantly less dysphoria. However, a 2‐month follow‐up found no significant changes in these areas, which suggests that the observed improvements may occur more gradually or may be an artifact of selective attrition from college. Implications of the results and directions for future research were discussed.

The stability and prediction of depressive mood states in college students

“…First, the results confirmed previous reports (e.g., Wong & Whitaker, 1993; Zuroff et al, 1990) of the stability in college students' mood states, dysfunctional attitudes, perceptions of their problemsolving ability, self-esteem problems, and sex-role orientation over about a semester's time. Second, contrary to Wong and Whitaker's (1993) previous findings and the higher prevalence of depression among women (American Psychiatric Association, 1987), this study found that lower levels of stereotypical feminine characteristics (e.g., "affectionate," "sympathetic," "warm") were associated with higher levels of dysphoria in both males and females. It may be that among college students, qualities that traditionally have been regarded as "feminine" are perceived to be desirable characteristics; depressed individuals may see themselves as lacking in such qualities.…”

“…Consistent with Beck et al's (1979) theory, Wong and Whitaker (1993) found that although upperclassmen were significantly less dysphoric than college freshmen, the mood states and their associated cognitive and personality correlates remained stable over a 2-month test-retest interval. However, the generalizability of the findings was limited by the homogeneous sample, short test-retest period, and failure to consider the number and degree of stressors that confronted the students.…”

“…The present study set out to replicate Wong and Whitaker's (1993) findings with a potentially more diverse group of students and a slightly longer test-retest interval. In addition, this study developed objective criteria for predicting dysphoric mood states (based on demographic variables and correlates of depression) among college students and cross-validated the predictors on Wong and Whitaker's (1993) previous sample.…”

“…Depressive moods states are triggered when stressful experiences activate the dysfunctional cognitions. Empirical investigations have supported the hypothesized relationship between dysfunctional attitudes and depression (Eaves & Rush, 1984;Wong & Whitaker, 1993), the interaction of dysfunctional attitudes with stressful life events in accounting for the variance in depressive symptoms (Olinger, Kuiper, & Shaw, 1987;Wise & Barnes, 1986), and the prediction of subsequent symptoms from dysfunctional cognitions (Rush, Weissenburger, & Eaves, 1986;Zuroff, Igreja, & Mongrain, 1990). However, other factors also have been associated with increased depressed mood states in college students, including problem-solving deficits, low self-esteem, and freshman status (Marx & Schulze, 1991;Wong & Whitaker, 1993), although these, too, have been correlated positively with higher levels of dysfunctional cognitions (Wong & Whitaker, 1993).…”

“…In addition, this study developed objective criteria for predicting dysphoric mood states (based on demographic variables and correlates of depression) among college students and cross-validated the predictors on Wong and Whitaker's (1993) previous sample. The prediction of depression in college students has important practical implications in that colleges and universities often offer stress-management and other counseling or preventive programs; if "at risk" students could be identified through brief screening procedures, they could be encouraged to participate in such programs or offered assistance before they become depressed.…”