Current Evaluation of the Millennium Phytomedicine- Ginseng (II): Collected Chemical Entities, Modern Pharmacology, and Clinical Applications Emanated from Traditional Chinese Medicine

Abstract

This review, a sequel to part 1 in the series, collects about 107 chemical entities separated from the roots, leaves and flower buds of Panax ginseng, quinquefolius and notoginseng, and categorizes these entities into about 18 groups based on their structural similarity. The bioactivities of these chemical entities are described. The ‘Yin and Yang’ theory and the fundamentals of the ‘five elements’ applied to the traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) are concisely introduced to help readers understand how ginseng balances the dynamic equilibrium of human physiological processes from the TCM perspectives. This paper concerns the observation and experimental investigation of biological activities of ginseng used in the TCM of past and present cultures. The current biological findings of ginseng and its medical applications are narrated and critically discussed, including 1) its antihyperglycemic effect that may benefit type II diabetics; in vitro and in vivo studies demonstrated protection of ginseng on beta-cells and obese diabetic mouse models. The related clinical trial results are stated. 2) its aphrodisiac effect and cardiovascular effect that partially attribute to ginseng’s bioactivity on nitric oxide (NO); 3) its cognitive effect and neuropharmacological effect that are intensively tested in various rat models using purified ginsenosides and show a hope to treat Parkinson’s disease (PD); 4) its uses as an adjuvant or immunotherapeutic agent to enhance immune activity, appetite and life quality of cancer patients during their chemotherapy and radiation. Although the apoptotic effect of ginsenosides, especially Rh2, Rg3 and Compound K, on various tumor cells has been shown via different pathways, their clinical effectiveness remains to be tested. This paper also updates the antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic and immune-stimulatory activities of ginseng, its ingredients and commercial products, as well as common side effects of ginseng mainly due to its overdose, and its pharmacokinetics.

Antitumor effects of ginsenoside Rg3 on human hepatocellular carcinoma cells

“…It has been reported that the potential health effects of ginsenosides include anticarcinogenic, immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, anti-allergic, antiatherosclerotic, antihypertensive, antidiabetic and antistress activities and effects on the central nervous system (5). Amongst all ginsenosides isolated from ginseng, ginsenoside Rg3 has gained much attention for its antitumor properties (6). Studies have found that Rg3 has significant anticarcinogenic effects in several kinds of malignant tumors, such as melanoma (7), colon (8-10), ovarian (11,12), prostate (13), breast (14) and lung cancer (15,16), but its role in human hepatocellular carcinoma is not yet well comprehended.…”

Anti-Inflammatory Mechanism of Compound K in Activated Microglia and Its Neuroprotective Effect on Experimental Stroke in Mice

“…The ginseng saponin metabolite, compound K, is absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract to the blood (Akao et al, 1998). Compound K has a variety of pharmacological activities, including antitumor, antidiabetic, antiallergic, and anti-inflammatory effects (Jia et al, 2009;Radad et al, 2011). Our group has reported that compound K suppresses glioma invasion via the inhibition of MMP-9 expression (Jung et al, 2006).…”

Senescence as A Consequence of Ginsenoside Rg1Response on K562 Human Leukemia Cell Line

“…Some researches show that the ginseng was used not only to decrease proliferation of human cancer cells in vitro (Oh et al, 1999;Popovich et al, 2002), but also as an adjuvant to enhance efficacy and reduce side-effects of active cancer therapies such as chemotherapy and radiotherapy (Jia et al, 2009). How does the ginseng act its function to anti-cancer cells and what are the underling mechanisms with the anticancer effects interaction by ginseng?…”