Cultural drivers of reforestation in tropical forest groves of the Western Ghats of India

Abstract

a b s t r a c tSacred forest groves in the Western Ghats of India are small fragments of tropical forest that have received protection due to religious beliefs and cultural practices. These forest fragments are an example of community-based conservation and they serve as refugia for many forest-dwelling species in otherwise highly anthropogenic tropical forest-agriculture landscapes of the Indian Western Ghats. Many of these sacred forest groves are considered ancient woodlands, but there is very little information on their origins. For instance: How old are these sacred groves? Are they relics of forest that was once continuous or are they patches of regenerated vegetation? How do changes in the surrounding landscape influence the vegetation in these groves? Based on palaeoecological reconstruction in two such sacred forest groves, we determined the age of these forest fragments. Both reconstructions indicate transition from non-forest open landscape to tree-covered landscape at these sites. These finding from two sacred groves challenge the common perception that sacred forest groves are remnants of once-continuous forest; instead, some sacred groves such as those studied might be regenerated forest patches that are approximately 400 years old. This further raises a number of questions about the drivers of reforestation in these groves. What were the social and cultural circumstances which led to the recovery of forest within these patches? How did land tenure influence forest recovery? What role did religious beliefs play in forest restoration? Using Wallace's (1956) framework of 'cultural revitalization' and based on historical literature and palaeoecological analysis of the two sacred groves, this paper examines the drivers of reforestation in the Western Ghats of India. It suggests various social, ecological and economic drivers of such revitalization, recognizing strong linkages between the 'social' and the 'ecological' within the social-ecological system of sacred forest groves. This example of reforestation suggests that contemporary restoration of forests needs to operate at a landscape scale and look at restoration as a socialecological intervention in forest management.

Dynamics and determinants of land change in India: integrating satellite data with village socioeconomics

“…Our forest definition is consistent with IGBP land classification scheme (Belward 1996) and excludes non-forest tree categories such as commercial plantations of coconut, cashew, coffee and rubber, and fruit orchards (see Table S7 for land class definitions). Cropland area refers to area under crops in any of the three prominent cropping seasons of India (summer monsoon, winter, and summer).…”

“…We mapped the entire country using on-screen visual interpretation of satellite data for two decades (1985-1995-2005). Our land types are defined following the IGBP land classification scheme (Belward 1996; see Table S7 for definitions). We projected the multitemporal Landsat MSS/TM data to WGS84 datum (UTM 44N projection) at sub-pixel level.…”

“…Tribes are culturally linked to forests, and they are typically motivated by state forest department to jointly manage forest through protection, restoration of degraded forest, and enrichment plantations (World Bank 2005; Government of India 2007; Macura et al 2011) (notable exception of North-East India where tribes practice shifting cultivation). Sacred groves are typically protected by local community due to cultural/religious beliefs (Ormsby and Bhagwat 2010;Bhagwat et al 2014).…”

Conservation of the Ethiopian church forests: Threats, opportunities and implications for their management

“…Sacred groves may be remnants of earlier more continuous forests or planted or regenerated forest patches in non-forest landscapes (Bhagwat et al 2014). Because sacred groves are usually protected by local institutions or by-laws that regulate resource use (Kibet 2011), such sites are often better protected than other small habitat patches, and can therefore play an intrinsic role in biodiversity conservation (Ceperley et al 2010;Metcalfe et al 2010;Rutte 2011;Daye and Healey 2015).…”

Phytolith analysis reveals the intensity of past land use change in the Western Ghats biodiversity hotspot

“…Recent palaeoecological studies in the Western Ghats of India have analysed fossil pollen grains and 50 charcoal time-series to show the importance of grassland-forest dynamics in a human modified 51 landscape (Bhagwat et al, 2012;Bhagwat et al, 2014). However, it is desirable to consolidate these 52 findings with an independent line of evidence and with an improved taxonomic identity of grasses 53 (Poaceae) and broad-leaved trees to better understand the dynamics of the whole system.…”