Cross-Border Shadow Education: Private Supplementary Tutoring in the Global Education Industry

Abstract

This paper focuses on the so-called shadow education provision of private supplementary tutoring by companies operating internationally. Some have a history of decades, while others are younger and emerged to take advantage of technological developments. Contributing to analysis of the Global Education Industry, the paper notes variations in the penetration and manifestation across world regions. In so doing, it draws on theories of isomorphism, while noting divergence as well as convergence in institutional models. The analysis includes remarks on regulatory regimes, many of which permit and even facilitate such international companies, but some of which – most obviously in China – restrict their operation. Thus, conceptually the paper analyses patterns with understanding of the forces in operation. Some of these forces are economic (pricing, marketing, etc.), but others are political (shaped particularly by government regulations), and social (shaped by different socio-economic groups within the countries in question).

Drivers and Demand for Shadow Education: A Case Study of Islamabad-Pakistan

“…For students, peer pressure and less individual attention in classroom are one of popular reasons of taking private tuition (Foondun, 2002) while others take it because of school teachers who teach lesser than the required syllabus (Bray, 2003). Parents representing public schools revealed an enormous trust deficit regarding quality of public sector schooling.…”

Entrepreneurial leadership of academic managers in cram schools under double reduction policy in China: conceptualizing competencies and resilience (El liderazgo emprendedor de los gestores académicos en los centros de apoyo al estudio ante una política de reducción doble en China: conceptualización de las competencias y la resiliencia)

“…Studies in cram schools in Europe solely discuss entrepreneurial issues in cram schools (Kany, 2021). Research bodies on shadow education industry from cross-national, international and global perspectives focus on its commodification and marketization without any discussion on educational leadership (Bray & Zhang, 2023; Kany, 2021; Ridge & Kippels, 2019; Ventura & Jang, 2010). When applying Bray and Thomas’ (1995, p. 475) three-dimensional cube into investigating shadow education in the Middle East, Bray and Hajar (2022) do not address leadership aspects of ‘education and society’.…”

“…Asimismo, en Chequia, algunos centros escolares gestionan clases privadas a través de la colaboración entre los centros escolares habituales y los proveedores de clases complementarias (Šťastný et al, 2021), de modo que se ofrecen clases particulares a cambio de un pago adicional a aquellos estudiantes (o a sus padres) que lo necesiten. La literatura internacional también revela un amplio reconocimiento gubernamental respecto al valor social de los centros de apoyo al estudio, tanto a nivel local como nacional, internacional e incluso global (Bray & Zhang, 2023). Sin embargo, raramente se encuentra este tipo de colaboración entre los gobiernos locales y el gobierno central en China, o entre los centros escolares oficiales y los centros de apoyo al estudio.…”

“…Los estudios relacionados con este tipo de centros en Europa discuten únicamente cuestiones de liderazgo en los CS (Kany, 2021). Otras investigaciones sobre la industria de la educación en la sombra desde perspectivas nacionales, internacionales y globales se centran en la comercialización de la educación sin abordar el liderazgo educativo (Bray & Zhang, 2023; Kany, 2021; Ridge & Kippels, 2019; Ventura & Jang, 2010). Cuando Bray y Thomas (1995, p. 475) aplicaron su matriz tridimensional de investigación en torno a la educación en la sombra en Oriente Próximo, Bray y Hajar (2022) no abordaron las dimensiones de liderazgo en su análisis bajo el epígrafe ‘educación y sociedad’.…”

“…Similarly, paid private tutoring services through collaborations between daytime schools and tutoring providers (Šťastný et al, 2021) are governed by some schools in Czechia to provide paid tutoring lessons to needy students and parents. International literature review also reveals the governments’ wide recognition of societal values of cram schools in local, national, cross-national and global perspectives (Bray & Zhang, 2023). However, such collaborations among the local/central governments, the daytime schooling system and cram schools are rarely found in China.…”