Could Curdlan/Whey Protein Isolate/Hydroxyapatite Biomaterials Be Considered as Promising Bone Scaffolds?—Fabrication, Characterization, and Evaluation of Cytocompatibility towards Osteoblast Cells In Vitro

Abstract

The number of bone fractures and cracks requiring surgical interventions increases every year; hence, there is a huge need to develop new potential bone scaffolds for bone regeneration. The goal of this study was to gain knowledge about the basic properties of novel curdlan/whey protein isolate/hydroxyapatite biomaterials in the context of their use in bone tissue engineering. The purpose of this research was also to determine whether the concentration of whey protein isolate in scaffolds has an influence on their properties. Thus, two biomaterials differing in the concentration of whey protein isolate (i.e., 25 wt.% and 35 wt.%; hereafter called Cur_WPI25_HAp and Cur_WPI35_HAp, respectively) were fabricated and subjected to evaluation of porosity, mechanical properties, swelling ability, protein release capacity, enzymatic biodegradability, bioactivity, and cytocompatibility towards osteoblasts in vitro. It was found that both biomaterials fulfilled a number of requirements for bone scaffolds, as they demonstrated limited swelling and the ability to undergo controllable enzymatic biodegradation, to form apatite layers on their surfaces and to support the viability, growth, proliferation, and differentiation of osteoblasts. On the other hand, the biomaterials were characterized by low open porosity, which may hinder the penetration of cells though their structure. Moreover, they had low mechanical properties compared to natural bone, which limits their use to filling of bone defects in non-load bearing implantation areas, e.g., in the craniofacial area, but then they will be additionally supported by application of mechanically strong materials such as titanium plates. Thus, this preliminary in vitro research indicates that biomaterials composed of curdlan, whey protein isolate, and hydroxyapatite seem promising for bone tissue engineering applications, but their porosity and mechanical properties should be improved. This will be the subject of our further work.

Hyaluronic Acid‐based Cell‐free Composite Scaffold Promotes Osteochondral Repair In Vitro by Upregulating Osteogenic‐ and Chondrogenic‐Specific Gene Expressions

“…This specific range facilitates cell migration, infiltration, supports adhesion, proliferation, differentiation of lineagespecific cells, and stimulates ECM production. [40,43] Therefore, we assessed the porous architecture of the scaffolds using SEM. In Figure 3a, SEM images showcase a porous architecture with interconnected macro and micro pores.…”

“…Consequently, from the physiochemical evaluation, the scaffold with HA exhibits increased swelling, high porosity, optimal pore interconnectivity, and controlled degradation potential, making it a suitable biomaterial for osteochondral tissue repair. [40,43]…”

“…Hence, the result indicates that HA and nHAP particles present in the scaffold provided a microstructure for increased cell adhesion and promoted cell proliferation. [36,43,49] Furthermore, to quantify live and dead cells, flow cytometry analysis was performed for the cells cultured with fabricated scaffolds on Day 5. Results from Figure 7 show that the scaffold with HA group (HA-GO-F-nHAP) has only 3.4% of cells in the late apoptosis phase, whereas the scaffold without HA (GO-F-nHAP) has 7.66%, and the control group has 5.15% of cells in the late apoptosis phase.…”

Bioactive Materials for Bone Regeneration: Biomolecules and Delivery Systems

“…Curdlan limited osteoclast differentiation by suppressing NFATC1 activation via downregulation of the Syk kinase signaling pathway, which is responsible for osteoclast differentiation, maturation, and bone lytic activity. , Curdlan can be modified to make highly elastic and biocompatible hydrogels or biocomposites. Curdlan/whey protein isolate/hydroxyapatite biomaterials showed a high cytocompatibility level and promoted OC production in an in vitro model of human osteoblasts . The addition of Curdlan to a chitosan/HA scaffold improved the porosity, water uptake capability, and biocompatibility of the composite and enhanced human osteoblast survival and proliferation on the scaffold, which are crucial to start the implant osseointegration process .…”

Whey Protein Isolate Composites as Potential Scaffolds for Cultivated Meat

“…While gelatin or similar ligands have been widely used to encourage cell adhesion, other animal proteins, such as whey protein, have been underutilized. Recently, whey protein has been blended with biomaterials to encourage cell adhesion and influence cell behavior. , Whey protein films and hydrogels have also been shown to support bone and cartilage tissue development for medical purposes. − The effect of whey protein on the development of muscle tissue in vitro , however, is unknown. Herein, whey protein was chosen as the cell adhesive component of our copolymer hydrogel scaffolds.…”