Corruption and Market in Contemporary China

The Duality of Crony Corruption in Economic Transition: Toward an Integrated Framework

“…Nevertheless, a consensus is emerging that the corruption in China is institutionalized as the de facto rule rather than the ad hoc exceptions (Fan and Grossman, 2001;He, 1998;Li, 2005;Lu, 2000;Sun, 2004). Corruption is institutionalized when it is systemic at two loci (Helmke and Levitsky, 2003): (1) corruption is committed by organized collective (Gong, 2002;Shieh, 2005), and (2) corruption is committed by a large number of individuals as the de facto rule (Cai, 2003;Ding, 2000).…”

“…For instance, the institutional inducement is created by China's dualtrack partial reforms (i.e., only economic reforms without political reforms) that are adopted to preserve the elite privileges. In this sense, informal corruption is induced as the ''wealth-chasing-power'' approach to the partial reforms as a push toward power market (Sun, 2004). At the third level is the institutional sponsorship of corruption as the ultimate trigger to the institutionalization of power market.…”

“…The former refers to a form of crony corruption that is endogenously initiated by local officials and TVE managers (tolerated by the state), while the later refers to a form of crony corruption that is not only endogenously initiated but also exogenously solicited by the state (cf. Basu and Li, 2000;Fan and Grossman, 2001;He, 1998;Li, 2005;Lu, 2000;Sun, 2004).…”

Corruption in China’s economic reform: a review of recent observations and explanations

“…Corruption, as a distinctive crime category in China's current criminal code, consists of three offenses: graft, bribe-taking and embezzlement [13]. More delineations for corruption can be found in various casebooks which are compiled by China's legal professionals or disciplinary offices [24]. This reflects the working of legal, administrative and disciplinary anti-corruption agencies.…”

“…The occasionally released numbers therefore do not lend themselves to longitudinal analyses [17]. Despite these issues, some studies have made attempt to establish characteristics, a typology and the distribution of China's corruption by analysing the information available in casebooks compiled by various sources (e.g., [24]). A few studies have discerned trends of Chinese corruption based on more available numbers which the judicial system had provided over the years (e.g., [30]).…”