“…Nevertheless, a consensus is emerging that the corruption in China is institutionalized as the de facto rule rather than the ad hoc exceptions (Fan and Grossman, 2001;He, 1998;Li, 2005;Lu, 2000;Sun, 2004). Corruption is institutionalized when it is systemic at two loci (Helmke and Levitsky, 2003): (1) corruption is committed by organized collective (Gong, 2002;Shieh, 2005), and (2) corruption is committed by a large number of individuals as the de facto rule (Cai, 2003;Ding, 2000).…”