Control of tsetse flies (Diptera: Glossinidae) using insecticides: a review and future prospects

Abstract

Following a long and varied history, Glossina control has become increasingly dependent upon the use of insecticides. There have been substantial successes with the use of chemicals, but reinvasion has been a constant, wide-spread problem. It is increasingly obvious that tsetse control must be approached on a large scale and requires international funding. Despite the proven ability of insecticides to reduce tsetse infestations there is a general reluctance to expand their usage and non-chemical methods are receiving increasing priority. In this paper, an attempt is made to put tsetse control into perspective. The literature relating to various insecticidal methods and tsetse control operations involving ground spraying, helicopter residual spraying, application of low dosage aerosols from fixed-wing aircraft and chemically impregnated traps is reviewed, and research and development relating to both the entomological and application aspects of chemical control are discussed. It is concluded that, given our present state of knowledge, insecticides provide the most reliable method for large-scale tsetse eradication. Of the methods available, applications of low dosage aerosols from fixed-wing aircraft have the greatest potential for rapid and effective control over large areas with minimal risk of non-target contamination, although refinements to improve efficiency and economy are needed. An integrated insecticidal approach combining the attributes of various chemical, and possibly nonchemical, control methods with the proven large-scale capability of spraying from fixed-wing aircraft could provide a realistic answer to the persistent Glossina and trypanosomiasis problems.

Factors affecting seasonal dispersal of the tsetse flies Glossina pallidipes and G. longipennis (Diptera: Glossinidae) at Nguruman, south-west Kenya

“…Control of tsetse flies and hence of African trypanosomiasis can be achieved by a variety of methods, including the use of aerial spraying of insecticides (Allsopp, 1984) and traps and targets (e.g. Vale et al, 1988).…”

Strategic and tactical developments in tsetse control in Zimbabwe (1981–1989)

“…A considerable amount of literature exists on tsetse control using ground spraying in various parts of Africa (see for example, Robertson et al, 1972;Baldry, 1983;Allsopp, 1984;Lovemore, 1986). The technique involves selective and discriminative application of persistent pesticides to tsetse resting and refuge sites.…”

“…Following the discovery of organochlorines in the early 1940's tsetse control has increasingly relied upon the use of insecticides (Allsopp, 1984). Bush clearing and game elimination were the only satisfactory means of tsetse control prior to the advent of modern insecticides.…”

Field Responses of Tsetse Flies (Glossinidae) and Other Diptera to Oils in Formulations of Deltamethrin

“…Aucune des huiles n'influence significativement 1'atterrissage des mouches (F( 4/32 )= 1.6959, P = 0.1753) ou des tabanides (F (432) = INTRODUCTION P yrethroid-impregnated targets are used to control tsetse flies (Glossina spp., Diptera: Glossinidae) in much of Africa (Allsopp, 1984). Les indices de reponse d'atterrissage compares a la formulation temoin sans huile, sont de 0,60, 0,70, 0,61 et 0,41 pour G. pallidipes et de 0,92, 0,82, 0,75 et 0,42 pour G. m. morsitans pour l'huile de paraffine, l'huile de paraffine chloree, l'huile de ricin et l'huile de lin respectivement.…”