Contrafreeloading and the value of control over visual stimuli in Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata)

Ogura, Tadatoshi

doi:10.1007/s10071-010-0377-y

Cited by 27 publications

(28 citation statements)

References 19 publications

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“…In addition, increasing quantity and numerosity may intensify reward (Parrish, Evans, & Beran, 2015;Petrazzini & Wynne, 2016). Moreover, actively dealing with a situation or exerting choice may increase a situation's attraction (Niv, Langdon, & Radulescu, 2015; e.g., contra-freeloading: Inglis, Forkman, & Lazarus, 1997;Ogura, 2011). Scarcity of a desired resource (Sehnert, Franks, Yap, & Higgins, 2014), the challenge of a task or the effort needed to reach a goal (Kurzban, Duckworth, Kable, & Myers, 2013;Nishiyama, 2016;Shadmehr, Huang, & Ahmed, 2016) may be rewarding at low but not at high intensity.…”

Section: Valuating a Set Of Stimuli-reactive And Proactive Emotionsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Wanting, liking and welfare: The role of affective states in proximate control of behaviour in vertebrates

Gygax

2017

Ethology

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Animals choose a course of action countless times each day. To do so, they need to prioritise their behaviour within a set of alternative actions and decide which of these actions to perform at any one time and for how long, that is, determine when the behaviour has reached its desired effect. This process has classically been called the proximate behavioural control mechanism. Several aspects contribute to this process: internal and external stimuli, the emotions that they elicit, motivation (wants), behavioural goals, valuation, decision‐making and its modulation by mood, and the assessment of behavioural outcomes (liking). I will address all these aspects in the form of an integrated conceptual model. In the process of behavioural control, options need to be valued, and I will refer to evidence showing that an affective hedonic process in respect to (future) reward and punishment heavily affects this value. Moreover, I view motivation, the force that finally drives a specific behavioural output, as being primarily influenced by affective states or even corresponding fully to them. Given the feedback in behavioural control by (dis‐)liking outcomes of behaviour, I reason that in respect to welfare it is more important for animals to reach proximate goals than to avoid negative stimuli. All behavioural choices are modulated, and I show how mood, a long‐term affective state, can cause such modulation. Proximate control of behaviour takes place in the brain, and I will briefly discuss how current and future brain research may elucidate how the brain computes these processes. Furthermore, the inclusion of affective states in the conceptual model raises the question of the subjective experience of animals, and I will address some of the important open questions in this area of research. I will conclude that neural studies cannot currently provide a detailed and general theory on the algorithms of proximate behavioural control. In parallel to further developing these approaches, I propose to strengthen a refined ethological approach with a focus on the states of “wanting” and “liking” in ecologically meaningful circumstances and with a strong ontogenetic (within species) and comparative (between species) component. I consider this ethological approach to be a highly promising step in understanding proximate behavioural control.

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Section: Valuating a Set Of Stimuli-reactive And Proactive Emotionsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Wanting, liking and welfare: The role of affective states in proximate control of behaviour in vertebrates

Gygax

2017

Ethology

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“…Their instincts, behaviour and needs, however, are likely to be the same as those of their wild conspecifics, since most parrots are only one or two generations removed from the wild and thus not considered as domesticated species (Davis, 1998;Graham, 1998). Similar to other animal species such as rats, pigs, monkeys, starlings, pigeons and chickens (Inglis et al, 1997;Lindqvist et al, 2002;de Leeuw, 2004;Ogura, 2011), parrots will contrafreeload (i.e., work for food even when food is freely available), suggesting that there is a behavioural need to forage (Coulton et al, 1997;van Zeeland et al, 2009;Joseph, 2010). This behavioural need, which is controlled by both physiological and psychological parameters, can only be satiated if an animal performs and experiences the consequences of both the appetitive and consummatory phases of feeding (Collier and Rovée-Collier, 1981;Hughes and Duncan, 1988;Jensen and Toates, 1993).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Efficacy of foraging enrichments to increase foraging time in Grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus erithacus)

Zeeland

Schoemaker

Ravesteijn

et al. 2013

Applied Animal Behaviour Science

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a b s t r a c tForaging enrichment is considered one of the most effective strategies to improve welfare and reduce stereotypies and other abnormal repetitive behaviours in captive animals, including parrots. Few studies, however, have investigated the effects of the different types of enrichment and determined their effect on increasing foraging times and foraging-related activities.To study the effect of different types of enrichment on foraging activity, eleven types of foraging enrichment [multiple bowls, mixing food with inedible items, larger-sized food particles, and 8 puzzle feeders] were tested in 12 Grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus erithacus). After acclimatization and assessment of baseline foraging times, enrichments were presented in a random order. Video recordings were used to analyze total foraging times and times spent on the different foraging activities. In addition, the frequencies and duration of foraging bouts, and the times at which they occurred, were determined. The learning curves and presence of habituation to the enrichment over a 1-week period were also assessed.Parrots needed 8.3 ± 1.1 days to learn how to use the foraging enrichments. For two of the puzzle feeders, it took considerably longer. Nine out of eleven foraging enrichments were able to significantly increase foraging times, with the most effective enrichments resulting in a 2-to 2.5-fold increase compared to baseline values (47 ± 18 min). The increases in time spent on foraging could be attributed to an increased amount of time spent on enrichmentrelated activities and/or an increased amount of time spent on food-related activities. None of the enrichments (including the use of multiple bowls in different locations) resulted in significant increases in time spent on locomotory behaviours (i.e. movement towards or away from the feeding site). No significant downwards trends in foraging times were observed over the 1-week observation period. The duration of the observations may, however, have been too short to demonstrate habituation effects.Results of this study show that distinct differences are present in the difficulty level, efficacy and time allocation, thereby affecting the choice for a particular foraging enrichment. Although most of the foraging enrichments were able to significantly increase foraging time, none of the enrichments were able to increase foraging times to levels comparable with that of wild conspecifics (i.e. 4-6 hours per day). New, more effective types of foraging enrichment should therefore be developed and tested.

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“…Another phenomenon is contrafreeloading, which experimentally evaluates the value of control as well as reward which can be obtained as a result of control (Inglis et al, 1997;Sambrook and Buchanan-Smith, 1997). This phenomenon was confirmed by using a Video system enrichment for Japanese macaques 7 visual reward (Ogura, 2011) as well as a food reward (Menzel, 1991;Reinhardt, 1994) in primates. These studies provided empirical evidence of the value of control over the environment for primates.…”

Section: Controllability Over Videosmentioning

confidence: 63%

Use of video system and its effects on abnormal behaviour in captive Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata)

Ogura

2012

Applied Animal Behaviour Science

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Although nonhuman primates have highly developed visual cognitive abilities, they have few opportunities to exert such abilities in captivity. Video presentation can reproduce multiple features of the complex real visual world. Therefore, video presentation can be expected to act as environmental enrichment for captive primates. The present study evaluated the enriching effects of novelty and content of videos as well as control over videos using newly developed technology including network-shared YouTube videos and an infrared distance sensor. Baseline data were obtained for 10 days without video display and then 10 days with the display showing no videos in four individually housed monkeys and six pair-housed monkeys. The monkeys were then exposed to videos of conspecifics, people, and animation and observed for 30 days. In some days, the monkeys had control over videos such that videos played only when subjects sat directly in front of the display. Observations were then taken for an additional 10 days with no videos. Behaviors such as time watching videos, abnormal behavior, and time spent in front of display were recorded for 60 min per day using instantaneous sampling with a 30-s interval. Monkeys displayed fewer abnormal behaviors when the video was playing (individually housed: 11.3 sampling points, pair-housed: 7.7 sampling points) than when the video was not playing (individual housed: 22.5 sampling points, pair-housed: 10.8 sampling points) (P < 0.001). The abnormal behaviour over the course of the observation days Video system enrichment for Japanese macaques 3 showed no evidence of habituation to videos. The frequency of watching the videos and abnormal behaviour differed depending on the presented contents of videos (P < 0.001). The subjects spent more time in front of the display in the days in which they could control the videos (individually housed: 89.1 sampling points, pair-housed: 17.6 sampling points) than in those in which they had no control (individually housed: 70.1 sampling points, pair-housed: 7.3 sampling points) (P < 0.001), suggesting that they were preferentially choosing to watch the videos. These results suggest that video presentation can be a useful technique to decrease abnormal behaviour of captive Japanese macaques. The content and controllability over videos were influential on their behaviour, suggesting that implementation of video enrichment that includes conspecifics videos and controllability over videos can improve animal welfare. Implementation based on an understanding of species-specific characteristics can contribute to effective environmental enrichment.

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Contrafreeloading and the value of control over visual stimuli in Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata)

Cited by 27 publications

References 19 publications

Wanting, liking and welfare: The role of affective states in proximate control of behaviour in vertebrates

Wanting, liking and welfare: The role of affective states in proximate control of behaviour in vertebrates

Efficacy of foraging enrichments to increase foraging time in Grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus erithacus)

Use of video system and its effects on abnormal behaviour in captive Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata)

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