Conclusions about interventions, programs, and approaches for improving executive functions that appear justified and those that, despite much hype, do not

Abstract

The ‘Executive Functions’ (EFs) of inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility enable us to think before we act, resist temptations or habitual reactions, stay focused, mentally play with ideas, reason, problem-solve, flexibly adjust to changed demands or priorities, and see things from new and different perspectives. These skills are critical for success in all life’s aspects. They are sometimes more predictive than even IQ or socioeconomic status. Understandably, there is great interest in improving EFs. It’s now clear they can be improved at any age through training and practice, much as physical exercise hones physical fitness. It also appears though, despite claims to the contrary, that wide transfer does not seem to occur and aerobic exercise per se does little to improve EFs. Important questions remain including: Are benefits just ephemeral and superficial? How much can EFs be improved and how long can benefits be sustained? What are the best methods for improving EFs? What about an approach accounts for its success? Do the answers to any of these differ by individual characteristics such as age or gender? Since stress, sadness, loneliness, or poor health impair EFs, and the reverse enhances EFs, I predict that approaches that not only directly train EFs but also indirectly support EFs by addressing emotional, social, and physical needs will be the most successful at improving EFs.

Associations of Memory and Executive Functioning With Academic and Adaptive Functioning Among Youth With Perinatal HIV Exposure and/or Infection

“…Thus, aspects of EF are considered core competencies for academic achievement [9]. Deficits in EF and memory have been observed in children with PHIV, particularly those with advanced disease [2,12,13].…”

“…In the general population, children with difficulties in aspects of executive function (EF), such as working memory, inhibitory control, and cognitive flexibility, are at increased risk for school failure [9,10], and those with EF difficulties in kindergarten are less likely to complete high school [11]. Thus, aspects of EF are considered core competencies for academic achievement [9].…”

Nivel de desarrollo de las funciones ejecutivas en estudiantes adolescentes de los colegios públicos de Envigado-Colombia

“…Por otra parte, el segundo grupo conformado por los estudiantes que se caracterizaron por un nivel adecuado de desarrollo de las FE esperadas para su edad y nivel de escolaridad, quienes muestran un buen nivel de manejo de la impulsividad, planeación y solución de problemas, una adecuada flexibilidad cognitiva, y suficiente manejo de memoria de trabajo y atención. Diamond & Ling, 2016;Gooch, Thompson, Nash, Snowling, & Hulme, 2016;Meltzer, 2010;Zelazo, Blair, & Willoughby, 2016).…”

Improved cognitive performance in preadolescent Danish children after the school‐based physical activity programme “FIFA 11 for Health” for Europe – A cluster‐randomised controlled trial

“…The assumption behind this cognitive stimulation hypothesis is that coordinatively demanding and non-automated movement and sports actions engage the same brain regions that are used to control higher order cognitive processes (Tomporowski et al, 2015). One proposed physical activity that complies with this is team games (Diamond & Ling, 2016). Using knowledge of the effect of the quantitative as well as qualitative characteristics of physical activity on cognitive performance, recent studies have applied different types of chronic physical activity programmes in ecologically valid school settings and found promising results.…”

“…An emerging field of research has been focusing on the positive relationship among physical activity, cognitive function and academic achievement in children (Diamond & Ling, 2016;Donnelly et al, 2016;Geertsen et al, 2016;Hillman, Erickson, & Kramer, 2008;Vazou, Pesce, Lakes, & Smiley-oyen, 2016). Cognitive function is regarded as a predictor of and a prerequisite for academic learning and achievement (Alloway & Alloway, 2010;Blair & Peters Razza, 2007).…”