Conceptual Foundations: Pain and Child Development

Bush, Joseph P.; Harkins, Stephen W.

doi:10.1007/978-1-4684-6413-9_1

Cited by 12 publications

(12 citation statements)

References 68 publications

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“…Craig (1980) noted strong consistencies in the morphology of facial pain expression from birth through old age, but sensitive to sociocultural norms and immediate social context (see also Craig et al 1992;LeResche et al 1992). The integrated pain response of the newborn shows facial activity in common with child and adult versions (Craig et al 1988), although the infant and young child may show less differentiation between pain and fear (Bush & Harkins 1991). Development of the expression with age has not been described in detail, but in comparison of infant and adult pain FAUs, it is important to recognise that what matters from an evolutionary point of view is that the infant's expression communicates effectively, rather than that it approximates the adult expression (Anand & Craig 1996).…”

Section: Distinctiveness and Specificity: Expression Of Painmentioning

confidence: 99%

Facial expression of pain, empathy, evolution, and social learning

Williams

2002

Behav. Brain Sci.

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The experience of pain appears to be associated, from early infancy and across pain stimuli, with a consistent facial expression in humans. A social function is proposed for this: the communication of pain and the need for help to observers, to whom information about danger is of value, and who may provide help within a kin or cooperative relationship. Some commentators have asserted that the evidence is insufficient to account for the consistency of the face, as judged by technical means or in the perceptions of observers, or that facial expression is epiphenomenal to a gross behavioural defensive response to pain. The major criticism is that it is unnecessary to invoke evolutionary mechanisms beyond the emergence of an unconditioned facial response to pain in neonates, subsequently shaped and maintained by instrumental and social reinforcement throughout life. These criticisms are addressed, acknowledging the need for further data to address some, and elaborating the areas in which evolutionary and operant mechanisms would predict different behavioural interactions, rather than acting synergistically. Several supportive commentaries propose extending evolutionarily-based hypotheses to sex differences, the complexities of others' responses within the social relationship, and the role of empathy. A number of commentators provided valuable suggestions for experimental paradigms or methodological issues. Overall, addressing these issues indicates the need for further conceptual development and for collection of data specifically in relation to these hypotheses.

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Section: Distinctiveness and Specificity: Expression Of Painmentioning

confidence: 99%

Facial expression of pain, empathy, evolution, and social learning

Williams

2002

Behav. Brain Sci.

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“…According to Savedra et al , 39 hospitalized children (9–12 years old) more frequently listed physical causes of pain related to illness and medical procedures. This can be explained by the school‐aged child’s stage of cognitive development 15 , 18 , 19 , 24 …”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…According to Stevens et al 14 an individual’s pain experience is considered to include physiological, psychological and experiential components. However, a child’s physiological and psychological development differs from that of an adult, and it is therefore important to view a child’s pain experience according to his/her stage of growth and development 6 , 8 , 14 , 15 …”

Section: A Child’s Experience Of Painmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Furthermore, pain and emotions are intimately related. For example, fear may cause more physical and emotional discomfort than the stressful stimulus itself 7 , 15 . At this stage in their development, children seldom show their feelings in aggressive ways, although they may experience pain during medical procedures 20 –22 …”

Section: A Child’s Experience Of Painmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Pain in children: Qualitative research of Finnish school‐aged children’s experiences of pain in hospital

Pölkki¹,

Pietilä

Rissanen³

1999

Int J of Nursing Practice

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The purpose of the study was to describe school-aged children's experiences of pain in the hospital. Data were collected from 20 children aged between seven and 11 years of age who were inpatients in the pediatric wards of the University Hospital, Oulu, Finland. Each of the children wrote of their experiences of pain in the hospital, and they were interviewed on the basis of this information. The data were analyzed inductively using content analysis. On the basis of the analysis, the situations that caused pain to all children in the hospital were found to be procedures connected with needles. The children described their experiences of pain as both physiological (e.g. poking, stinging, aching) and psychological feelings (unpleasant feelings, terror, anxiety, and fear). In addition, methods of relieving pain (coping mechanisms, help from the medical staff, parental presence, and previous experiences of similar situations) were acknowledged. The results indicate that school-aged children (aged 7-11 years) are able to describe their pain experiences, which should be considered in assessment and treatment of children's pain in nursing practice.

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“…27 Numerous other examples in the literature confirm the widespread inappropriate attitude of many medical staff to paediatric pain management. [28][29][30] There are many situations in the A&E department in which children require analgesia, either to relieve the pain of their presenting condition, or to reduce the discomfort of painful procedures such as venesection and cannula insertion.…”

Section: Emergency Provision Of Analgesia In the Paediatric Populationmentioning

confidence: 99%