Facial expression of pain, empathy, evolution, and social learning

Abstract

The experience of pain appears to be associated, from early infancy and across pain stimuli, with a consistent facial expression in humans. A social function is proposed for this: the communication of pain and the need for help to observers, to whom information about danger is of value, and who may provide help within a kin or cooperative relationship. Some commentators have asserted that the evidence is insufficient to account for the consistency of the face, as judged by technical means or in the perceptions of observers, or that facial expression is epiphenomenal to a gross behavioural defensive response to pain. The major criticism is that it is unnecessary to invoke evolutionary mechanisms beyond the emergence of an unconditioned facial response to pain in neonates, subsequently shaped and maintained by instrumental and social reinforcement throughout life. These criticisms are addressed, acknowledging the need for further data to address some, and elaborating the areas in which evolutionary and operant mechanisms would predict different behavioural interactions, rather than acting synergistically. Several supportive commentaries propose extending evolutionarily-based hypotheses to sex differences, the complexities of others' responses within the social relationship, and the role of empathy. A number of commentators provided valuable suggestions for experimental paradigms or methodological issues. Overall, addressing these issues indicates the need for further conceptual development and for collection of data specifically in relation to these hypotheses.

Emotional primes modulate the responses to others’ pain: an ERP study

“…Similarly, when observing injury or pain in another, perceptions of alarm and danger may be activated to promote escape or other protective responses (Yamada and Decety 2009;Eccleston and Crombez 1999;Williams 2002;Decety 2011;Ibáñez et al 2011). The ''threat value of pain hypothesis'' (TVPH) posits observing others' pain is potentially threatening to observers, and activates an early, threat-detection system instead of evoking automatic empathic responses (Ibáñez et al 2011).…”

Healthcare Providers’ Nonverbal Behavior can Lead Patients to Show Their Pain More Accurately: An Analogue Study

“…Nonverbal expressions of pain by a sufferer are known to reflect the pain experience (Craig 2009;Craig et al 2001;Hadjistavropoulos and Craig 2002;Prkachin and Craig 1995;Williams 2002). Valid nonverbal expressions of pain are identified by examining how closely various cues are related to sufferers' self-reported pain ratings.…”

“…There is, however, some evidence that cues of pain can be altered, especially by social context and social interactions (for reviews see Williams 2002;Krahé et al 2013). For example, Peeters and Vlaeyen (2011) demonstrated that participants receiving the same number of electric shocks showed fewer facial expressions of pain (coded with the Child Facial Coding System; Chambers et al 1996) when they were falsely told that a confederate inflicted the most electric shocks on them compared to participants who were led to believe that they were given the fewest number of shocks.…”

Agents with Affective Traits for Decision-Making in Complex Environments

“…Some of these phenomena are grounded on the theory of mind (ToM) [Whiten, 1991], which studies the human ability to attribute mental states (like beliefs, desires, or intentions) to other people, and to use those mental states to reason or to feel like others would do. Besides, the capacity of individuals to identify emotional signals in facial expressions or body gestures allows these phenomena to take place (see e.g., [Hess et al, 1998;Williams, …”