“…We test these three hypotheses using the detailed patent data of US public firms from 1976 to 2005. Patent data are considered the most direct measure of firm‐level innovation output in the accounting and economics literature (e.g., Pakes and Griliches, 1984; Pakes, 1985; Francis and Smith, 1995; Holthausen, Larcker, and Sloan, 1995; Deng, Lev, and Narin, 1999; Bastin and Hübner, 2006), and have several advantages for assessing technological competitiveness. First, unlike research and development (R&D) expenditures, which involve uncertainty and often inefficiency (see, e.g., Jensen, 1993), patents are realized technologies affecting future operating performance and are publicly traded (see Lev, 2001).…”