Comparison of Japanese and Scottish Mother–Infant Intersubjectivity: Resonance of Timing, Anticipation, and Empathy During Feeding

Abstract

Feeding involves communication between mothers and infants and requires precise synchrony in a special triadic relationship with the food. It is deeply related to their intersubjectivity. This study compared the development of mother–infant intersubjectivity through interactional synchrony in feeding between 11 Japanese and 10 Scottish mother–infant dyads, observed at 6 and 9 months by video. Japanese mothers were more deliberate in feeding at an earlier age, whereas Scottish mothers were significantly more coercive than Japanese mothers at an earlier age. Japanese mothers brought the spoon to infants with a pause to adjust the timing of insertion to match their infants’ readiness, whereas this pause was not observed in Scottish mothers. Isomorphic mouth opening between mothers and infants was observed. This empathic maternal display is an important element of intersubjectivity in infant feeding that differed between Scottish and Japanese mothers. Scottish mothers’ mouth opening always followed their infants’ mouth opening, but about half of Japanese mothers preceded their infants. Further, the mouths of Scottish infants and mothers opened almost at the same time as spoon insertion. In contrast, Japanese mothers’ mouth opening did not co-occur with the insertion but was close to spoon arrival, a subtle but important difference that allows for greater infant autonomy. The time structure of Scottish mother-infant interactions was simpler and more predictable at 9 months than in Japan, where the structure was more variable, likely due to a stronger regulation by Scottish mothers. In conclusion, Scottish mother-infant intersubjectivity is characterized as more maternally reactive and mother-centered, whereas Japanese mother-infant intersubjectivity is characterized as more maternally empathetic and infant-centered. Cultural differences in intersubjectivity during feeding between Japan and Scotland are further discussed in relation to triadic relationships and parenting styles.

Evidence for cultural differences in affect during mother–infant interactions

“…The extent of the compatibility of experimental constructs to both cultures, such as the behavioral coding of valence and arousal, may vary as specific measurements can be more prominent in certain cultural settings. Moreover, research constructs can be defined differently, depending on culture, and impact the results of the study 115 . However, importantly, the method used in this research was developed by Palestinian-Arab and Jewish scientists on a sample of both Palestinian-Arab and Jewish populations.…”

“…By responding to the infant's affective signals, mothers and other caregivers provide immediate regulation but also help the infant to become more independent in self-regulation 39,[111][112][113][114] . Indeed, from an early age, infants learn to adjust their response to their caregiver's behavior 115 , and thus parents can shape their infant's behavior according to their cultural patterns. Therefore, the culture-specific pattern of both mothers' and infants' behaviors can represent a behavioral mechanism for the cross-cultural transmission of behavioral norms.…”

When do toddlers point during mealtime?: Pointing in the second year of life in everyday situations

“…It is also known that the development of mutual awareness of attention between infants and caregivers is specific to cultural contexts. For example, the studies that compared Scottish and Japanese infant-caregiver dyads have shown that cultural difference exists in the style of co-regulation of behavior based on the awareness of each other’s attention in daily activities such as feeding ( Negayama et al, 2021 ) and negotiation of inter-personal distance ( Negayama and Trevarthen, 2022 ).…”