Comparative analysis and antibacterial properties of thermally sintered apatites with varied processing conditions

Abstract

Biological waste holds a major portion of the municipal waste stream, particularly in rural areas of developing countries. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), every year there are 1.3 billion tons of food waste produced and around one-third of all food produced for human consumption are being wasted. 1 Amongst the other sources, the livestock industry (fish and poultry industry) has a vital contribution. Some biological

In Vitro Degradation and Cytotoxicity of Eggshell-Based Hydroxyapatite: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

“…Out of 71 relevant article titles collected from SCOPUS, PubMed, and Google Scholar, only 36 were included after screening the title, abstract, and content for in vitro degradation and cytotoxicity testing for the biocompatibility of eggshell-based hydroxyapatite. The articles came from several countries, such as India [ 11 , 14 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 ], Bangladesh [ 41 , 42 ], China [ 43 ], Korea [ 25 , 44 , 45 ], Turkey [ 46 , 47 , 48 ], Thailand [ 49 , 50 ], Brazil [ 26 ], Italy [ 51 ], USA [ 52 ], Romania [ 2 ], Vietnam [ 53 , 54 ], Colombia [ 55 ], and Egypt [ 56 ]. The study selection of the articles included in the systematic review is shown in Figure 1 .…”

“…It means that there should not be a decrease of viable cells of more than 30% [ 26 ]. In the analysis of the studies we conducted, the cultured cells came from humans and animals, including mice [ 27 , 35 , 40 ], rats [ 25 , 33 , 36 ], and monkeys [ 41 , 42 ]. As shown in Table 3 and Table 4 , with the varieties of cell cultures used, all studies obtained viable cell results of more than 70% with a variety of materials, either pure eggshell-based hydroxyapatite or composites of eggshell-based hydroxyapatite and other materials.…”

“…Egg white protein, which acts as a hydrogel, has benefits for osteogenic differentiation cells and increases bone regeneration when mixed with eggshells as hydroxyapatite [ 64 ]. Eggshell results in cell viability decreasing by less than 5% because CaO as a constituent of eggshell-based hydroxyapatite has high cytotoxicity [ 41 ].…”

“…Viable cells are affected by a few indicators, such as the sintering temperature [ 41 ], composition and size of the particles [ 45 ], morphology, porosity, and surface energy [ 35 ]. The sintering temperature affects the particle size and crystallinity of the material, where a higher sintering temperature is proportional to the crystallinity of the particles [ 41 ]. Viable cells decrease when heating the material to a higher temperature [ 25 ].…”

“…As shown in Table 4 , among the different calcium carbonate sources, eggshell-derived hydroxyapatite promotes the best cell adhesion and proliferation, which are comparable with those of pure hydroxyapatite but without the formation of clusters [ 51 ]. Compared with fish bones, fish scales, cuttlefish bone, and synthetic calcium carbonate, eggshell-based hydroxyapatite showed improved cell survival rate, because eggshell contains calcium oxide (CaO), which has high cytotoxicity [ 41 ]. Cuttlefish bone and synthetic calcium carbonate with round grains have poor cell adhesions [ 51 ].…”