Coffee Consumption among Adults in the United States by Demographic Variables and Purchase Location: Analyses of NHANES 2011–2016 Data

Abstract

Coffee, obtained from various sources, is consumed by most United States adults. The present analyses of one and two 24-h dietary recalls for 14,865 persons aged ≥20 years in the 2011–2016 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES 2011–2016) aimed to identify socio-demographic predictors of coffee consumption and to examine whether coffee purchase locations differed by population sub-group. Given the emphasis on food and beverage consumption patterns, the relation between coffee consumption and compliance with the Dietary Guidelines of Americans was also examined. Coffee was consumed by 59% of the sample (n = 8551). Survey-adjusted mean intake among consumers was 544.7 g/day. Percent consumers and mean amounts consumed were highest among adults aged 51–70 years (p < 0.001), higher income groups (p < 0.001), and non-Hispanic Whites (p < 0.001). About 74% of coffee consumers obtained their coffee from stores, 9.8% from fast food restaurants, 4.3% from convenience stores, and 4.2% from someone else. Coffee source locations also varied by age, education, income, and race/ethnicity. Coffee consumers had significantly higher Healthy Eating Index (HEI-2015) and higher Nutrient-Rich Foods (NRF9.3) scores in energy-adjusted models and significantly higher HEI 2015 scores in multivariable models. In multivariable models, coffee consumers had diets with less added sugar (p < 0.001) but slightly more fat (of all types, including monounsaturated (MUFA), polyunsaturated (PUFA), saturated and solid fats), cholesterol, and alcohol. Their diets had more potassium and magnesium (p < 0.001) but less vitamin C (p < 0.001). Mean caffeine consumption was 233 mg/day for consumers and 72.3 mg/day for non-consumers. Coffee consumption patterns in the US vary across socio-demographic groups.

Prevalence and Amounts of Common Ingredients Found in Energy Drinks and Shots

“…Initially marketed towards young, active adults, these drinks are now regularly consumed by adolescents, young and older adults [3], athletes [4], and military personnel [5], with consumption rates tending to be higher in males compared with females [3]. While the prevalence of energy drink consumption has increased steadily in young adults from 0.5% to 5.5% during the span of 2003-2016, this consumption rate is still far below that of coffee, another popular caffeinated beverage, in which over half of the US population regularly consumes on a daily basis (mean intake: 54 g per day (~2.5 cups)), making up a majority of their daily caffeine intake and equating to a mean caffeine intake of 233 mg per day [6]. Comparatively, the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) states that amounts up to 400-600 mg per day appear to be safe for consumption, without any evidence of adverse effects when consumed below this threshold, whereas rapid ingestion of 1200 mg of caffeine appears to the upper end of the threshold for toxic effects, such as seizures or cardiovascular complications [7].…”

Correlations between Coffee Consumption and Metabolic Phenotypes, Plasma Folate, and Vitamin B12: NHANES 2003 to 2006

“…For more than two decades, coffee consumption has risen worldwide and is the most consumed beverage in the United States, even more than water [ 15 , 16 ]. Habitual coffee consumption is found to be inversely associated with total and cause-specific mortality as well as several chronic diseases [ 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 ].…”

The association between coffee consumption and periodontitis: a cross-sectional study of a northern German population

“…Thus, we included smoking as a confounder variable and were still able to demonstrate association between coffee consumption and periodontitis. We also excluded the following covariables from regression analyses: education (proven evidence for no association with coffee consumption [ 41 ]) and Plaque Index (detected multicollinearity; variance inflation factors = 6.9).…”