Clarification and Purpose of the Race-Based Traumatic Stress Injury Model

Abstract

The author responds to the four reactions authored by Thompson-Miller and Feagin, Griffin, Speight, and Bryant-Davis in this issue. In responding, he clarifies the purpose of the model presented in his major contribution and adds information about the model's legal and forensic applications that he did not touch on with any detail. He also discusses the purpose of the use of "injury" to describe the harm of racism, the intersection of psychology and law, and how legal definitions are not useful in the effort to understand the mental health effects of racism. He further points out that both objective and subjective stressors are harmful since, where racism is concerned, there seems to be a tendency to discount subjective experience. Lastly, the author acknowledges points made by the reaction authors that extend and expand the model of racebased traumatic stress injury he presented.

Lifting the veil: Considering the conceptualizations of racism-based trauma among social workers

“…Participants' conceptualization and emerging definition suggests the construct can be explained as heavily influenced by external factors. This is consistent with Carter's (2007) thoughts identifying the impact of racist actions, regardless of intent. Often as covert as they are overt, racist practices have been used in the erasure and creation of traditions that reinforce systemic, structural, and cultural racism in the United States (Behm-Cross, 2017;Buck, 2012).…”

“…It is with these themes in mind that the researchers propose an alternative definition of racism-based trauma: an often unknown yet persistently stressful reaction to a covert or overt racially oppressive situation potentially accentuated by place or geographic location. With a particular emphasis on place and location, this definition expands the conceptualizations within the racism-based trauma literature (Carter, 2007). The emerging definition also complements present thinking on how geographic location accentuates perceptions of racism: environmental racism within the South; racial violence prompted by law enforcement interactions in the Northeast, Midwest, and West; and negative birth outcomes prompted by racism throughout the entire country (J.…”

The association between discrimination and PTSD in African Americans: exploring the role of gender

“…In part, this seems to be explained in part by individual socioeconomic disadvantage (Alim, Charney, and Mellman 2006), and may also be due to the increased rates of acute trauma experienced by this population (Turner and Lloyd 2004; Turner and Avison 2003), including exposure to disadvantaged neighborhoods with high rates of crime and violence (Roberts et al 2011; Alim, Charney, and Mellman 2006). However, there is evidence that the risk of developing PTSD among African Americans remains higher after controlling for exposure to trauma (Roberts et al 2011), and some have argued that discrimination and race-related stress also contribute to the increased risk of PTSD in African Americans (Carter 2007b, 2007a).…”

COVID-19 anti-Asian racism and race-based stress: A phenomenological qualitative media analysis.

“…Chronic experiences of racism often do not "qualify." In order to address the psychological distress resulting from repeated exposure to negative race-based encounters, researchers have begun to conceptualize this phenomenon using various terms, such as "race-based traumatic stress" (Carter, 2007) and "race-based stress and trauma" (Carlson et al, 2018) among others. In this emerging literature, however, Asian populations have not been the focus for conceptualization or research.…”

“…Indeed, a diagnosis of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM–5) , requires a single “Criterion A” incident where one is exposed to actual or threatened death, serious injury, or sexual violence (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Chronic experiences of racism often do not “qualify.” In order to address the psychological distress resulting from repeated exposure to negative race-based encounters, researchers have begun to conceptualize this phenomenon using various terms, such as “race-based traumatic stress” (Carter, 2007) and “race-based stress and trauma” (Carlson et al, 2018) among others. In this emerging literature, however, Asian populations have not been the focus for conceptualization or research.…”