The contribution of Th1 and Th17 cells in chronic inflammatory conditions leading to autoimmunity remains highly controversial. In inflamed tissues, production of prostaglandins by COX-2 has been proposed to favor Th17 responses indirectly by increasing IL-23 and blocking IL-12 release from APC. We report here that prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) can directly modulate cytokine production by human memory CD4 1 T cells. TCR triggering in the presence of PGE2 increased IL-17 and reduced IFN-c production by freshly isolated memory T cells or T-cell clones. PGE2 triggered the EP2 and EP4 receptors expressed on T cells leading to a rapid increase of retinoic-acid-related orphan receptor-ct (ROR-ct) and decrease of T-cell-specific T-box transcription factor 21 (T-bet) mRNA. Moreover, PGE2 promoted the selective enrichment of IL-17-producing cells by differentially modulating the proliferation of memory T-cell subsets in vitro. Taken together our results indicate that T-cell effector function is a direct target for PGE2 modulation and suggest a novel mechanism by which inhibitors of prostaglandin synthesis, such as COX-2 inhibitors, exert their anti-inflammatory effect.Key words: IFN-c . IL-17 . Memory T cells . Prostaglandin . Th17Supporting Information available online
IntroductionIL-17-producing T cells (Th17) have been recently characterized as a distinct lineage of CD4 + Th cells. IL-17 and Th17 cells have been shown to mediate protection against extracellular pathogens by promoting neutrophil recruitment [1][2][3][4] but also to cause immunopathology in different models of autoimmunity [5]. Differentiation of mouse Th17 cells from uncommitted naïve T-cell precursors is controlled by the lineage-specific transcription factors retinoic-acid-related orphan receptor-gt (ROR-gt) [6] and , is promoted by an IL-21-autocrine loop triggered by 9] and inhibited by Th1-or Th2-promoting stimuli, such as IL-12, IFN-g and IL-4. Human Th17 cell differentiation is associated with increased expression of ROR-g, is induced by IL-1b and enhanced by 11] while requirement for TGF-b is still debated and may be different depending on experimental conditions [12][13][14]. Both in vitrodifferentiated human and mouse Th17 cells selectively upregulate expression of the chemokine receptor CCR6 [15,16]. CCR6 is also expressed on circulating human memory Th17 cells and it has been shown to mediate recruitment of pathogenic Th17 cells in a mouse arthritis model [16]. The notion that Th17 cells are implicated in the onset and maintenance of autoimmune diseases is supported by compelling evidence. In mice, transfer of Th17 but not Th1 cells induce EAE Before identification of Th17 cells, Th1 cells and the Th1-associated cytokine IFN-g were thought to play a pathogenic role in autoimmune diseases [29]. However, the findings that IFN-gand IFN-R-deficient mice had higher susceptibility to EAE and CIA compared with wild-type mice [30][31][32] and that administration of neutralizing antibodies to IFN-g exacerbated MS in human patients [33] were pointing to an...