Chlorinated Paraffin Levels in Relation to Other Persistent Organic Pollutants Found in Pooled Human Milk Samples from Primiparous Mothers in 53 Countries

Abstract

Background: The current production and use of chlorinated paraffins (CPs) at likely exceeds the lifetime production of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). These persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are a concern to human health. Objectives: The United Nations Environment Programme conducts global surveys of human milk samples from individual countries as a noninvasive method of investigating levels and trends in human exposures to POPs such as CPs. We measured CP concentrations and assessed their relation to other POPs in pooled samples collected during 2012–2019. Methods: We analyzed 57 official nationwide pooled milk samples from 53 countries on five continents (Africa, Central/South America, Asia, Europe, and Australia/Oceania). CP concentrations were further characterized by subgroups and compared with concentrations of 19 other POPs, including PCBs and a variety of pesticides. Results: CPs were detected in pooled samples from all 53 countries, with concentrations of lipid. CPs accounted for 18–46% of the total summed POPs in human milk, second only to dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT). CP concentrations exceeded PCB concentrations in pooled samples from most countries. Discussion: The presence of CPs in all samples, including samples from isolated locations (e.g., Pacific Island countries), emphasizes the ubiquitous presence of these compounds, whereas differences in subgroup ratios indicate a delay in the shift toward nonregulated medium-chain CPs (MCCPs) for these regions. The predominance of MCCPs in samples from many countries suggests a need for regulation and research on health effects. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP7696

Method validation and comparison of quantification strategies for analysis of chlorinated paraffins in indoor dust by liquid chromatography and high-resolution mass spectrometry

“…Rates of exposure to ∑SCCPs and ∑LCCPs were similar for both age groups for both scenarios, while intakes of ∑MCCPs were estimated to be approximately 5 times greater for adults and 5.5-6 times higher for toddlers. The daily ∑CP intake estimates in this study were similar to those previously reported for Australian adults and toddlers, but higher than the rates estimated for Swedish populations [6,43] . Estimated rates of CP exposure from dust have been around 1-2 orders of magnitude greater in China, with much higher intake of SCCPs in particular [4,44] .…”

“…The levels of CPs measured in the current study spanned a similar range to those determined in 44 samples of indoor dust from houses, offices, and vehicles in Brisbane and Canberra, Australia [6] . MCCPs were also the dominant group in the analysis by He et al [6] , ranging from 5.1 to 540 μg/g with a median of 95 μg/g.…”

“…The levels of CPs measured in the current study spanned a similar range to those determined in 44 samples of indoor dust from houses, offices, and vehicles in Brisbane and Canberra, Australia [6] . MCCPs were also the dominant group in the analysis by He et al [6] , ranging from 5.1 to 540 μg/g with a median of 95 μg/g. SCCPs ranged from 0.29 to 58 μg/g and LCCPs were detected in 86% of samples up to a maximum concentration of 27 μg/g in the same study, which reported overall concentrations to be generally greatest in vehicles, followed by offices and then houses.…”

“…CPs have been detected in a variety of environmental media [2,[4][5][6] as well as human milk and serum [7,8] . Recent studies have shown that unintentional ingestion and inhalation of dust [5,6,9] and dietary intake [10,11] are among the most prominent pathways for human exposure to CPs.…”

“…CPs have been detected in a variety of environmental media [2,[4][5][6] as well as human milk and serum [7,8] . Recent studies have shown that unintentional ingestion and inhalation of dust [5,6,9] and dietary intake [10,11] are among the most prominent pathways for human exposure to CPs. Due to their persistence, bioaccumulation potential, and toxic effects [12] , international conventions and regulatory agencies have classified SCCPs as environmentally hazardous compounds and globally restricted their production [5,13] .…”