China and Lithium Geopolitics in a Changing Global Market

Abstract

The energy market is shifting from fossil fuels to renewables. This transition is creating new geopolitical dynamics. In the past, traditional energy geopolitics focused on the concentrated distribution of fossil fuel resources and the conflicts and dependencies that this created. In contrast, the ‘new’ renewable energy geopolitics emphasises the dispersed distribution or decentralisation of production capacity and the independence of states this generates. However, the market for lithium, which is essential to renewable energy storage through being a key component of lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries, does not entirely fit theoretical conceptions of the renewable energy market’s dynamics. By focusing on China as a critical case, this article shows that lithium geopolitics has potentially created new (inter)dependencies and opportunities for conflicts, while also paradoxically enhancing state interindependence in renewable technology energy production. Thus, this hybrid form of energy geopolitics necessitates revising conventional energy security explanations to match these new market conditions.

Trajectories for Lithium‐Ion Battery Cost Production: Can Metal Prices Hamper the Deployment of Lithium‐Ion Batteries?

“…This can be achieved through the international cooperation, [74] which fosters interdependency and helps mitigate potential conflicts. [88] Additionally, the vertical integration [23] plays a vital role in effectively managing unforeseen price surges resulting from supply risks. A notable example of successful vertical integration is observed in BYD, as they not only serve as producers of their main battery components but also engage in a wide range of BEV production and upstream material mining and refining.…”

“…However, it is crucial to emphasize the significance of establishing a secure supply chain for critical metals. This can be achieved through the international cooperation, [74] which fosters interdependency and helps mitigate potential conflicts [88] . Additionally, the vertical integration [23] plays a vital role in effectively managing unforeseen price surges resulting from supply risks.…”

Unraveling Sodium-Ion Dynamics in Honeycomb-Layered Na2MgxZn2–xTeO6 Solid Electrolytes with Solid-State NMR

“…As humanity continues to transition from legacy fossil fuels to intermittent and renewable energy sources, a new frontier in large-scale energy storage technology research is needed to facilitate the integration of renewable energies into the electrical grid and to ensure a stable supply chain to meet this ever-growing energy demand. − Among energy storage technologies, rechargeable electrochemical storage has become indispensable to modern society due to its ability to provide high energy conversion efficiency, on-demand electricity, and low maintenance cost. , Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have dominated the mobile storage technology market for portable consumer electronic devices for over three decades due to their light atomic mass, high energy density, and compact size. − However, concerns over limited earth abundance, uneven geographic distribution, and geopolitical issues associated with lithium as well as the scarcity of other metals used in LIB components (e.g., cobalt, nickel, manganese, etc. ) have led to a global search for potential alternatives to LIBs. − Sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) that use comparatively heavier sodium ions as charge carriers are emerging as a promising alternative to LIBs due to sodium’s high abundance (i.e., fourth most plentiful element in the earth’s crust), low environmental impact, cost-effectiveness, and suitable redox potential, making them appropriate for inexpensive large-scale stationary energy storage grids and low-cost vehicles where weight is not considered as the primary factor. − …”

Assessing the Energy Storage Potential of Electric Hot Water Cylinders with Stochastic Model-Based Control

“…Meanwhile, current energy storage solutions, such as pumped hydropower, compressed air, and battery storage, have low round trip efficiencies due to nested inefficiencies (Ibrahim et al 2008), and their installation is often expensive and can have undesirable geopolitical and/or environmental impacts. For example, the cost of residential lithium-ion batteries is approximately NZD 1000-1200/kWh (Svarc 2021), and lithium mining has been shown to contribute to global warming and ozone depletion (Vandepaer et al 2017), release toxic pollutants (Kaunda 2020), and increase opportunities for geopolitical conflicts (Altiparmak 2022;Sanchez-Lopez 2023).…”