Childhood Gender Nonconformity and Recalled Perceived Parental and Peer Acceptance Thereof, Internalized Homophobia, and Psychological Well-Being Outcomes in Heterosexual and Gay Men from Poland

Abstract

The link between gender nonconformity and psychopathology may be due in part to negative childhood experiences resulting from other people’s reactions to gender nonconformity. The aim of this study was to test whether recalled perceived levels of parental and peer acceptance of childhood gender nonconforming behaviors and play mediate the relationship of childhood gender nonconformity with depression and social anxiety in adulthood. We also tested whether this relationship was moderated by sexual orientation and, among gay men, whether internalized homophobia was an additional mediator. All variables were measured in a large sample of male participants using self-report (n = 449 gay men, age: M = 27.8 years, SD = 6.69; and n = 296 heterosexual men, age: M = 27.4 years, SD = 6.57) in Poland. Gay men reported more childhood gender nonconformity than heterosexual men. The relationship between gender nonconformity and depressive symptoms as well as social anxiety symptoms was significant in both gay and heterosexual men. Among gay men, this relationship was partially mediated by peer but not parental acceptance of the measured aspects of gender nonconformity and internalized homophobia. Among heterosexual men, recalled perceived parental acceptance of gender nonconformity partially mediated the relationship between gender nonconformity and depressive and social anxiety symptoms. Our findings were partially in line with those found in Western European and North American samples. Although the two groups differed in their recalled perceived gender nonconformity, they did not differ in their depression or social anxiety scores. Nevertheless, childhood gender nonconformity may be an indirect risk associated with mental health symptoms, irrespective of sexual orientation. Its higher prevalence among nonheterosexual individuals makes it a particular risk for this group.

The relationship between childhood gender nonconformity, aversive childhood experiences, and mental health in heterosexual and non‐heterosexual cisgender men: The buffering effect of sense of coherence

“…Our results regarding the link between CGNC and mental health problems in adulthood were mostly consistent with previous research; for example, Folkierska‐Żukowska et al. (2022) found a similar positive association between CGNC and depressive symptoms for homo‐ and heterosexual men. Also, Roberts et al.…”

“…During that time, the COVID‐19 pandemic was affecting the lives of many people in Germany, which might have biased our results—especially for feelings of loneliness, which were found to increase during the pandemic (Buecker & Horstmann, 2021; Ernst et al., 2022). However, as we were not interested in mean‐level comparisons, and associations with mental health problems were comparable to previous studies (e.g., Folkierska‐Żukowska et al., 2022; Hart et al., 2019; Plöderl & Fartacek, 2009), the pandemic may not have influenced our findings at large.…”

“…For example, CGNC was found to be associated with lower self‐esteem (Oginni et al., 2019; for an overview see: Zentner & von Aufsess, 2022), lower life‐satisfaction (Toomey et al., 2013), more intense feelings of loneliness (Hart et al., 2019), more worries (Swift‐Gallant et al., 2022), higher levels of neuroticism (Swift‐Gallant et al., 2022), and separation anxiety (Swift‐Gallant et al., 2022). Furthermore, CGNC is related to more depressive symptoms (Chan, 2022; Folkierska‐Żukowska et al., 2022; Ghavami et al., 2020; Mustanski & Liu, 2013; Oginni et al., 2019, 2021; Roberts et al., 2013; Toomey et al., 2013; Zhao et al., 2021), increased social anxiety (Folkierska‐Żukowska et al., 2022; Ghavami et al., 2020, van Beusekom et al., 2016), more posttraumatic stress symptoms (D’Augelli et al., 2006; Roberts et al., 2012), heavier substance use (Lowry et al., 2018), as well as more suicidal behavior in adolescence (Ioerger et al., 2015; Reinherz et al., 1995; Spivey et al., 2018) and adulthood (Oginni et al., 2019; Plöderl & Fartacek, 2009). Most of these associations are small to medium (Cohen, 1988).…”

Understanding the impact of gender identity nonaffirmation: The mediating role of psychological needs thwarting.

“…To test the study hypotheses, we fully utilized the data collected on the study variables from T1 to T2. In the present study, we specifically followed the approaches recommended by Finkel (1995) and Frese et al (2007) for use with panel data to capture change within the study variables from T1 to T2 and to test for a combination of direct and indirect effects across two time points. We feel it is important to capture change, as opposed to direct predictive relationships, as this is more likely to represent the emergent nature of needs frustration in relation to experiences of gender identity nonaffirmation.…”

“…Following recent research, future studies may wish to consider the role of gender dysphoria as a proximal stressor (Lindley & Galupo, 2020). Another potential avenue is to explore any contributing factors from parental and peer acceptance earlier in life, and levels of rejection sensitivity as development progresses (Folkierska-Z ̇ukowska et al, 2022).…”