Chemical Features and Biological Effects of Astaxanthin Extracted from Haematococcus pluvialis Flotow: Focus on Gastrointestinal System

Abstract

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Bioactive Properties of the Pigment Astaxanthin from Haematococcus pluvialis in Human Health

“…A study conducted on hypertensive mice treated with natural astaxanthin revealed its ability to prevent atherosclerosis, significantly reduce blood pressure, and delay the occurrence of stroke. These findings indicate that astaxanthin holds the potential in safeguarding against hypertension and stroke [1]. Furthermore, in patients at risk of cardiovascular disease, astaxanthin has shown promise in the treatment of myocardial injuries, thrombolysis, and other heart-related conditions.…”

“…Both in vitro and in vivo studies have demonstrated that astaxanthin exhibits superior anti-inflammatory effects compared to common medications [16]. Consequently, natural anti-inflammatory substances such as astaxanthin are extensively utilized for the prevention and management of inflammatory conditions due to their ability to inhibit the production of nitric oxide (NO), prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), and pro-inflammatory cytokines [1,47]. Furthermore, research has shown that astaxanthin derived from the microalga H. pluvialis is effective in alleviating symptoms of ulcers caused by Helicobacter pylori and reducing gastric inflammation [48].…”

“…However, when the production of ROS reaches excessive levels as a result of exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation, these natural defenses become inadequate [62]. The accumulation of ROS within cells leads to cell death, and an excessive level of cell death can manifest as wrinkles, skin dryness, and photoaging conditions such as skin inflammation, melanoma, and skin cancer [1,14]. Previous studies have demonstrated the therapeutic potential of natural pigments in protecting the skin [62,63].…”

“…Astaxanthin (3,3′-dihydroxy-diketo-β,β′-carotene-4,4-dione) is a secondary carotenoid, which belongs to the xanthophyll family, it is naturally synthesized by photosynthetic organisms mainly microalgae, but it can also be found in a limited number of fungi, bacteria, and plants [1,2]. It has been reported that the freshwater microalgae Haematococcus pluvialis under conditions of environmental stress protects its photosynthetic apparatus by transforming its vegetative state into an astaxanthin-rich aplanospore state.…”

The Clinical Promise of Microalgae in Rheumatoid Arthritis: From Natural Compounds to Recombinant Therapeutics

“…Notably, the esterified biological form of ASTX displays higher bioavailability compared with synthetic ester-free derivatives [70][71][72][73], suggesting the need to improve its production from natural sources. However, a major limitation to the clinical use of ASTX lies in its low solubility in gastrointestinal fluids [74], requiring encapsulation in polysaccharide, lipid, and protein nanoparticles to enhance its delivery and release [75][76][77][78][79][80].…”