“…The catalytic process of chemical reactions is known to occur on the surface. Even without direct contact, substantial evidence indicates that subsurface species are also important in various reactions. − For example, much research effort has been devoted to studying the role of subsurface oxygen atoms in Cu-based catalysts in CO 2 reduction reactions. ,,,− Despite intensive studies, there is still debate regarding the exact impacts of subsurface species on catalytic processes. , One of the most critical reasons is the difficulty associated with detecting, identifying, and distinguishing subsurface atoms from surface atoms, given that traditional surface science techniques often lack sufficient resolution . For instance, largely overlapping signals are often observed in X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) spectra, one of the most widely used surface sensitive techniques. ,, On the contrary, to differentiate surface layers for microscopy-based techniques, the observed volumes must be sufficiently small, which may not be representative of the entire sample .…”