Changes of Gut-Microbiota-Liver Axis in Hepatitis C Virus Infection

Abstract

The gut–liver-axis is a bidirectional coordination between the gut, including microbial residents, the gut microbiota, from one side and the liver on the other side. Any disturbance in this crosstalk may lead to a disease status that impacts the functionality of both the gut and the liver. A major cause of liver disorders is hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection that has been illustrated to be associated with gut microbiota dysbiosis at different stages of the disease progression. This dysbiosis may start a cycle of inflammation and metabolic disturbance that impacts the gut and liver health and contributes to the disease progression. This review discusses the latest literature addressing this interplay between the gut microbiota and the liver in HCV infection from both directions. Additionally, we highlight the contribution of gut microbiota to the metabolism of antivirals used in HCV treatment regimens and the impact of these medications on the microbiota composition. This review sheds light on the potential of the gut microbiota manipulation as an alternative therapeutic approach to control the liver complications post HCV infection.

Metabolic Influences of Gut Microbiota Dysbiosis on Inflammatory Bowel Disease

“…This ecosystem offers many benefits to the human host that are essential for good health. The gut harbors the greatest human microbial assembly ( Sultan et al, 2020 ; El-Mowafy et al, 2021 ). The first role of the gut bacteria involves its metabolic capacity to process undigestible food particles such as complex carbohydrates, plant glycans, choline and bile acids ( Tremaroli and Backhed, 2012 ).…”

“…Phages are the most ubiquitous organisms worldwide and they are characterized by their selectivity and specificity to bind their target host ( Abd El-Aziz et al, 2019 ). Phages can bind and lyse specific bacterial strains within certain species ( El-Mowafy et al, 2021 ). This capability gives the phage the advantage to be safer during the treatment of bacterial infections than commonly used antibiotics and to have limited effect on microbiota of the host ( Abd El-Aziz et al, 2019 ; El-Mowafy et al, 2021 ).…”

“…Phages can bind and lyse specific bacterial strains within certain species ( El-Mowafy et al, 2021 ). This capability gives the phage the advantage to be safer during the treatment of bacterial infections than commonly used antibiotics and to have limited effect on microbiota of the host ( Abd El-Aziz et al, 2019 ; El-Mowafy et al, 2021 ).…”

“…Phages can bind and lyse specific bacterial strains within certain species (El-Mowafy et al, 2021). This capability gives the phage the advantage to be safer during the treatment of bacterial infections than commonly used antibiotics and to have limited effect on microbiota of the host (Abd El-Aziz et al, 2019;El-Mowafy et al, 2021). The use of Russian coliphage or oral T4-like coliphages in children with bacterial infection-induced diarrhea does not induce any side effect, however, it was unsuccessful to enhance the conditions (Sarker et al, 2016).…”

The Role of Immunotherapy in a Tolerogenic Environment: Current and Future Perspectives for Hepatocellular Carcinoma

“…In support of this finding, extracts from the microbiota of patients with HCC along with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease were shown to specifically induce a T-cell immunosuppressive phenotype, which demarcated them from a control group [38]. Streptococcus salivarius was shown to be significantly enriched during liver cirrhosis and HCV-related HCC, suggesting that it plays a pivotal role in the progression of chronic hepatitis into liver cirrhosis and ultimately HCC [39,40]. Streptococcus salivarius downregulates innate immune responses and, therefore, may favor the progression of HCC.…”