Change in self-discrepancy, anxiety, and depression in individual therapy.

Abstract

This study tested hypotheses of change in the real-ideal (RI) and real-ought (RO) self-discrepancies over the course of therapy, based on Rogers's (1959) theory of personality change in therapy. Before and after therapy with 20 therapists of diverse theoretical orientations at a university counseling center, 99 undergraduate and graduate students completed three instruments that measure both self-discrepancies: the Self-Concept Questionnaire--Personal Constructs, the Self-Concept Questionnaire--Conventional Constructs, and the Abstract Measures. Participants also completed the Beck Depression Inventory-II, State-Trait Anxiety Inventory Trait scale, and the Symptom Checklist-90-R Anxiety and Depression scales. Therapy outcome showed substantial decreases on all measures. Changes in the RI and RO self-discrepancies were associated with changes in anxiety and depression. Change in the RI self-discrepancy was associated with change in the RO self-discrepancy. Decreases in self-discrepancy comprised increases in real self and decreases in ideal self and ought self. Findings were independent of therapist theoretical orientation. The findings support the use of the self-discrepancy instruments in future research on therapy process and outcome. The findings also provide a basis for incorporating the self-discrepancy constructs into theory and research on mechanisms of therapeutic change.

The Influence of Trauma, Life Events, and Social Relationships on Bipolar Depression

“…In one recent study of euthymic persons diagnosed with bipolar I disorder, 61% reported a history of childhood abuse (7), rates that appear to be even higher than those reported by individuals with unipolar depression (8, 9). Not only is childhood abuse far too common among those diagnosed with bipolar disorder, abuse is also associated with a more severe course of the disorder.…”

Compassionate and self‐image goals as interpersonal maintenance factors in clinical depression and anxiety

“…For instance, striving to avoid undesirable goals, rather than approaching desired goals, is associated with negative emotionality (Dickson & MacLeod, ; Elliot & Thrash, ), parallel with research linking prevention goals (in contrast to promotion goals) to depression and anxiety symptoms (Brodscholl, Kober, & Higgins, ). Similarly, perceived low competence or ability to reach one's goals (Carver, ) and discrepancy between current and desired goal states (Cornette, Strauman, Abramson, & Busch, 2009; Watson, Bryan, & Thrash, ) consistently predict dysphoria and anxiety, regardless of the actual content of goals.…”

Even Supermoms Get the Blues: Employment, Gender Attitudes, and Depression

“…The self-discrepancy perspective posits that mental distress ensues when individuals' expectations for their role performance do not align with their self-evaluations of actual role behavior or the evaluations they perceive from others (Higgins 1987). Such discrepancies are generally associated with depressive symptoms (McDaniel and Grice 2008;Watson, Bryan, and Thrash 2014) and feelings of sadness, anxiety, and depression for parents specifically (Alexander and Higgins 1993;Lazarus and Rossouw 2015). Among mothers of infants, those whose motherhood expectations (i.e., expected feeling of competence) exceeded their actual experiences report more anxiety and depression (Lazarus and Rossouw 2015).…”