“…Exosomes secreted by antigen-presenting cells (APCs), namely, dendritic cells (DC), possess biologically functional MHC surface molecules presenting antigenic peptides (pMHC) capable of inducing antigen-specific T cell responses. ,,− When DCs are treated with tumor-associated antigens (TAAs), secreted exosomes retain the ability of parental DC to present these antigens and activate TAA-specific T cells, inducing a TAA-targeted response. ,,,, The function or immunomodulatory ability of exosomes can be further altered or enhanced through surface modification (e.g., amino conjugation, lipid insertion, and PEG (polyethylene glycol)-ylation) or genetic engineering of the parental cell or exosome itself to increase target specificity or load exogenous or endogenous molecules onto the exosome surface or interior. , Although exosome-based cancer immunotherapy has progressed, clinical application is hindered due to manufacturing constraints, such as low yields and a lack of scalable production, giving rise to investigation into alternative, exosome-mimicking platforms. ,− In an attempt to overcome these obstacles, synthetic alternatives to exosomes have been explored and include systems such as liposomes, dendrimers, nanogels, and metallic nanoparticles. Such systems may possess attributes that enable scalable production, high yields, customizable composition, or modifiable physiochemical properties but are hindered by cost and aggregation during storage and, due to their exogenous nature, lack intrinsic targeting capabilities and can be immunogenic or toxic. ,,,,− Biomimetic hybrid platforms that employ a synthetic nanoparticle core coated with a cell membrane have been proposed and possess desirable traits, as well as having shown favorable results in mice. , However, much like exosomes, such platforms are impeded by difficulty in achieving large-scale production, in addition to poor reproducibility and low efficiency in coating the nanoparticle core with cell membrane. , Cell-derived nanovesicles (CDNVs), which are artificially generated through fragmentation of cell membranes, have shown similar properties as exosomes, including target-specific cargo delivery and the incorporation of peptide-presenting MHC molecules on the CDNV surface to facilitate T cell activation via direct or indirect mechanisms. − Studies using dendritic cell-derived nanovesicles primarily focused on mediating T cell activation by inducing fusion or aggregation of CDNVs or by simultaneous treatment with CDNVs and free peptides.…”