Cathode materials of metal-ion batteries for low-temperature applications

Fundamentals and future applications of electrochemical energy conversion in space

“…The primary energy source for a spacecraft, besides propulsion, is usually provided through solar or photovoltaic panels 7 . When solar power is however intermittent, storage of energy is required in rechargeable batteries, operating in a harsh space environment which impacts their performances 8,9 . In recent years, several exploration space missions have been developed for moon and Mars, increasing the needs of batteries capable to sustain long solar eclipse periods, nighttime, yet insuring data transmission as well as powering instruments and protecting electronics from cold temperature.…”

“…Batteries in planetary orbiters have the benefit of a controlled thermal environment 4,5 . Surface missions, on the other hand, require batteries that can operate in extreme environments with respect to temperature and radiation 9 . Until the late 1990s, the energy storage needs for all space missions were primarily met using aqueous rechargeable battery systems such as Ni-Cd, Ni-H 2 and Ag-Zn and are now majorly replaced by lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) 4,5,8,9 .…”

“…Surface missions, on the other hand, require batteries that can operate in extreme environments with respect to temperature and radiation 9 . Until the late 1990s, the energy storage needs for all space missions were primarily met using aqueous rechargeable battery systems such as Ni-Cd, Ni-H 2 and Ag-Zn and are now majorly replaced by lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) 4,5,8,9 . In the 1970s, L. Thaller at the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) also developed the so-called 'redox flow battery' (RFB) based on an iron-chromium (Fe/Cr) redox couple 10 .…”

“…A major obstacle with LIBs is however the operation at low temperatures (see Fig. 2a): (1) the liquid electrolyte suffers from a wettability and ion conductivity decrease due to an increased viscosity and/or solidification which blocks the ion transport in the electrolyte, (2) the increase of intrinsic grain-boundary resistance and sluggish Li + diffusion within the electrodes suppress the (de)lithiation reactions, (3) the Li + desolvation and charge transfer becomes difficult and a slow transport through the solid electrolyte interface (SEI) together with the large charge transfer resistance reduces the battery kinetics, and (4) severe Li plating on the anode under low-temperature gives rise to safety concerns 5,8,9 . Figure 2b summarizes the developments in the field of low-temperature LIBs and LMBs (lithium metal batteries) with respect to the energy density 8 .…”

Lithium-ion batteries for low-temperature applications: Limiting factors and solutions

“…Other recent reviews explored methods and mechanisms for improving the LT properties of LIBs, emphasizing the electrolyte, cathode materials, anode materials, or lithium metal alone [1,[12][13][14][15][16][17][18]. For example, Wang et al discussed various high-energy cathode materials including polyanionic compounds, layered oxides, spinel oxides, Prussian blue and analogs for LT metal-ion batteries [19]. Hou et al summarized the fundamentals and challenges of LIBs in a wide range of operating temperatures, highlighting the CEI and SEI problems at low temperatures [20].…”