Carnosine, Small but Mighty—Prospect of Use as Functional Ingredient for Functional Food Formulation

Abstract

Carnosine is a dipeptide synthesized in the body from β-alanine and L-histidine. It is found in high concentrations in the brain, muscle, and gastrointestinal tissues of humans and is present in all vertebrates. Carnosine has a number of beneficial antioxidant properties. For example, carnosine scavenges reactive oxygen species (ROS) as well as alpha-beta unsaturated aldehydes created by peroxidation of fatty acid cell membranes during oxidative stress. Carnosine can oppose glycation, and it can chelate divalent metal ions. Carnosine alleviates diabetic nephropathy by protecting podocyte and mesangial cells, and can slow down aging. Its component, the amino acid beta-alanine, is particularly interesting as a dietary supplement for athletes because it increases muscle carnosine, and improves effectiveness of exercise and stimulation and contraction in muscles. Carnosine is widely used among athletes in the form of supplements, but rarely in the population of cardiovascular or diabetic patients. Much less is known, if any, about its potential use in enriched food. In the present review, we aimed to provide recent knowledge on carnosine properties and distribution, its metabolism (synthesis and degradation), and analytical methods for carnosine determination, since one of the difficulties is the measurement of carnosine concentration in human samples. Furthermore, the potential mechanisms of carnosine’s biological effects in musculature, metabolism and on immunomodulation are discussed. Finally, this review provides a section on carnosine supplementation in the form of functional food and potential health benefits and up to the present, neglected clinical use of carnosine.

2-Oxo-Imidazole-Containing Dipeptides Play a Key Role in the Antioxidant Capacity of Imidazole-Containing Dipeptides

“…Since the antioxidant capacity of IDPs was discovered in the 1980s, numerous studies of the physiological effects of IDPs have been performed (reviewed in [2]). Recently, we provided the first evidence for the endogenous generation of 2-oxo-carnosine, 2-oxo-anserine, 2-oxo-homocarnosine, and 2-oxo-homoanserine in vivo [4,16].…”

“…A significant decrease in 2-oxo-IDPs and IDPs was not observed in the presence of H2O2. Numerous studies have reported that IDPs exhibits several biological functions (reviewed in [2]). In particular, their antioxidant capacity has been a major focus of research since it was first reported in the 1980s [8].…”

“…Imidazole-containing dipeptides (IDPs) is the collective term for dipeptides containing an imidazole residue. Since the discovery of carnosine (β-alanyl- l -histidine) in beef extract in 1900 [ 1 ], the endogenous production of several IDPs, such as anserine (β-alanyl-3-methyl- l -histidine) and homocarnosine (γ-aminobutyryl- l -histidine), has been reported ( Figure 1 A) [ 2 ]. Various vertebrates, including mammals, produce IDPs, with wide variation in the composition and concentration [ 3 ].…”

Carnosine Alleviates Knee Osteoarthritis and Promotes Synoviocyte Protection via Activating the Nrf2/HO-1 Signaling Pathway: An In-Vivo and In-Vitro Study

“…CA is a dipeptide that contains β-alanine and L-histidine. CA’s anti-inflammatory capacity in autoimmune disease has been investigated [ 33 ]. CA’s antioxidant, toxic metal ion chelating nature, and anti-glycating properties have all been well documented [ 34 ].…”

Enhanced capillary zone electrophoresis in cyclic olefin copolymer microchannels using the combination of dynamic and static coatings for rapid analysis of carnosine and niacinamide in cosmetics

“…Carnosine is an endogenous dipeptide constructed by βalanine and L-histidine, which was found in skeletal mus-Article Related Abbreviations: COC, cyclic olefin copolymer; EDA, ethylenediamine; NBD-F, 4-fluoro-7-nitro-2,1,3-benzoxadiazole; PBS, phosphate-buffered saline; SDS, sodium dodecyl sulfate cle, nervous tissue, and kidney tissue [1]. As a free radical scavenger and a low-molecular-weight hydrophilic antioxidant [2], carnosine appears in medicine [1,3,4], food [5,6], and cosmetics [7,8]. For example, carnosine can be found in various cosmetics with whitening, antisugar and antiaging functions in external [7] and oral forms [8].…”