Carbon dioxide euthanasia in rats: oxygen supplementation minimizes signs of agitation and asphyxia

Coenen, A.M.L.; Drinkenburg, W.H.I.M.; Hoenderken, R.; Luijtelaar, E.L.J.M. van

doi:10.1258/002367795781088289

Cited by 72 publications

(69 citation statements)

References 11 publications

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“…In which case almost no signs of asphyxia and excitation were observed (Coenen et al, 1995). The main action of CO 2 is not to suffocate but to anaesthetise (Coenen et al, 1995). In the present experiment, O 2 saturation did not change during exposure to the gas mixture, which could be the reason for the relative mild induction of anaesthesia.…”

Section: Discussioncontrasting

confidence: 41%

“…In rats, a low concentration of CO 2 and the addition of O 2 and humidification of the gasses could help ameliorate the negative effects. In which case almost no signs of asphyxia and excitation were observed (Coenen et al, 1995). The main action of CO 2 is not to suffocate but to anaesthetise (Coenen et al, 1995).…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 91%

“…Increases in head shaking and the elicitation of withdrawal from feeding at 55% CO 2 and above suggest that such concentrations of CO 2 in air may be aversive. In rats, a low concentration of CO 2 and addition of O 2 and humidification of the gasses could ameliorate these negative effects (Coenen et al, 1995). In the latter case, almost no signs of asphyxia and excitation were observed.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 96%

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Castration of piglets under CO2-gas anaesthesia

Gerritzen

Kluivers-Poodt

Reimert

et al. 2008

Animal

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It has become common practice in pig fattening production systems to castrate young boar piglets without the use of anaesthesia. In this study, we examined whether or not CO 2 gas is capable of inducing an acceptable anaesthetic state during which castration can be performed. The first step was to identify the most promising CO 2 /O 2 mixture. Based on the results from this first experiment, a mixture of 70% CO 2 1 30% O 2 was chosen for further investigation as a potential anaesthetic during the castration of young piglets. Thereby, it was established whether the duration and depth of anaesthesia were acceptable for castration where the animal has to be insensible and unconscious. Physiological effects were assessed based on electroencephalogram (EEG) and electrocardiogram (ECG) measurements, blood gas values and behavioural responses. During the induction phase, the only typical behaviour the piglets exhibited when exposed to the 70/30 gas mixture was heavy breathing. All piglets (n 5 25) lost consciousness after approximately 30 s according to the EEG. Heart rate decreased slowly during the induction phase, a serious drop occurred when piglets lost their posture. Immediately after this drop, the heart rate neared zero or showed a very irregular pattern. Shortly after loss of posture, most animals showed a few convulsions. None of the animals showed any reaction to castration in behaviour and/or on the EEG and ECG. On average, the piglets recovered within 59 s, i.e. EEG returned to its pre-induction pattern and piglets were able to regain a standing position. After 120 s, heart rate returned to pre-induction levels. In order to explore the usage range of CO 2 concentration, 24 piglets were exposed to 60% CO 2 1 20% O 2 1 20% N 2 for up to 30 s after loss of consciousness (as registered on EEG), and castrated after removal from the chamber. Sixteen of the 24 animals showed a reaction to the castration on the EEG. To establish the maximum time piglets survive in 70% CO 2 1 30% O 2 , five piglets were placed in this mixture for 3 min. Two of them died. After that, four piglets were placed in this mixture for 2 min after unconsciousness, one died after 2 min. It was concluded from this study that it is possible to anaesthetise piglets with a mixture of 70% CO 2 1 30% O 2, but that there are limits to its safety in terms of CO 2 concentration and duration of exposure. Before implementation for practical use, further research is essential to assess the limits of gas concentration and exposure times.

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Section: Discussioncontrasting

confidence: 41%

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 91%

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 96%

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Castration of piglets under CO2-gas anaesthesia

Gerritzen

Kluivers-Poodt

Reimert

et al. 2008

Animal

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“…Research regarding CO 2 use in different species has examined several parameters such as blood pressure (Smith & Harrap 1997), heart rate (Coenen et al 1995, Smith & Harrap 1997, Leach et al 2002a, behaviour (e.g. Smith & Harrap 1997, Leach et al 2002a, times to anaesthesia and death (Blackshaw et al 1988, Danneman et al 1997, Kohler et al 1999, EEG activity (Thurauf et al 1991), histology (Britt 1986, Danneman et al 1997) and blood pH (Hewett et al 1993).…”

Section: Relevant Human Datamentioning

confidence: 99%

Carbon dioxide for euthanasia: concerns regarding pain and distress, with special reference to mice and rats

et al. 2005

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SummaryCarbon dioxide (CO 2 ) is the most commonly used agent for euthanasia of laboratory rodents, used on an estimated tens of millions of laboratory rodents per year worldwide, yet there is a growing body of evidence indicating that exposure to CO 2 causes more than momentary pain and distress in these and other animals. We reviewed the available literature on the use of CO 2 for euthanasia (as well as anaesthesia) and also informally canvassed laboratory animal personnel for their opinions regarding this topic. Our review addresses key issues such as CO 2 flow rate and final concentration, presence of oxygen, and prefilled chambers (the animal is added to the chamber once a predetermined concentration and flow rate have been reached) versus gradual induction (the animal is put into an empty chamber and the gas agent(s) is gradually introduced at a fixed rate). Internationally, animal research standards specify that any procedure that would cause pain or distress in humans should be assumed to do so in non-human animals as well (Public Health Service 1986, US Department of Agriculture 1997, Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development 2000). European Union guidelines, however, specify a certain threshold of pain or distress, such as 'skilled insertion of a hypodermic needle', as the starting point at which regulation of the use of animals in experimental or other scientific procedures begins (Biotechnology Regulatory Atlas n.d.). There is clear evidence in the human literature that CO 2 exposure is painful and distressful, while the non-human literature is equivocal. However, the fact that a number of studies do conclude that CO 2 causes pain and distress in animals indicates a need for careful reconsideration of its use. Finally, this review offers recommendations for alternatives to the use of CO 2 as a euthanasia agent.Keywords Carbon dioxide; euthanasia; pain; distress; anaesthesia; welfare; rodents Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) is commonly used for euthanasia and anaesthesia of laboratory rodents, largely because of its ease of use, relative safety, and low cost, as well as its capacity to euthanize large numbers of animals in a short time span (Ambrose et al. 2000). In large institutions and those with significant rodent-breeding programmes, large numbers of rodents are often euthanized in a short time (Kline et al. 1963) and an appropriate gas agent is often the best way to approach such a challenge. However, CO 2 is not physiologically inert and the published evidence on whether or not CO 2 administration causes pain or distress in animals raises questions about its routine use. This paper reviews this published evidence and includes information on the effects of CO 2 in both humans and nonhumans. Methodological details are included when possible in order to provide a clear

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“…Experimental asphyxia in animal models results in cardiac arrest within a few minutes. In all cases following the onset of asphyxia, electroencephalogram (EEG) amplitudes become extremely low before the disappearance of electrocardiogram (EKG) signals (5)(6)(7)(8). Although no reports of EEG and EKG recordings are available from asphyxia in humans, loss of external consciousness and sensory responsiveness is often the first sign of clinical cardiac arrest and always precedes the termination of all cardiac electrical signals.…”

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confidence: 99%

Asphyxia-activated corticocardiac signaling accelerates onset of cardiac arrest

Li¹,

Mabrouk

Liu³

et al. 2015

Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.

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The mechanism by which the healthy heart and brain die rapidly in the absence of oxygen is not well understood. We performed continuous electrocardiography and electroencephalography in rats undergoing experimental asphyxia and analyzed cortical release of core neurotransmitters, changes in brain and heart electrical activity, and brain-heart connectivity. Asphyxia stimulates a robust and sustained increase of functional and effective cortical connectivity, an immediate increase in cortical release of a large set of neurotransmitters, and a delayed activation of corticocardiac functional and effective connectivity that persists until the onset of ventricular fibrillation. Blocking the brain's autonomic outflow significantly delayed terminal ventricular fibrillation and lengthened the duration of detectable cortical activities despite the continued absence of oxygen. These results demonstrate that asphyxia activates a brainstorm, which accelerates premature death of the heart and the brain.asphyxic cardiac arrest | autonomic nervous system | coherence | directed connectivity | near-death experience

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Carbon dioxide euthanasia in rats: oxygen supplementation minimizes signs of agitation and asphyxia

Cited by 72 publications

References 11 publications

Castration of piglets under CO2-gas anaesthesia

Castration of piglets under CO2-gas anaesthesia

Carbon dioxide for euthanasia: concerns regarding pain and distress, with special reference to mice and rats

Asphyxia-activated corticocardiac signaling accelerates onset of cardiac arrest

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