Cacao domestication I: the origin of the cacao cultivated by the Mayas

Motamayor, Juan Carlos; Risterucci, Ange-Marie; Lopez, P.A.; Ortiz, Carlos F.; Moreno, Argelio; Lanaud, Claire

doi:10.1038/sj.hdy.6800156

Cited by 299 publications

(282 citation statements)

References 25 publications

(28 reference statements)

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“…Researchers have focused on the natural distribution of the cacao tree (Theobroma cacao L.) within tropical regions of South America and Mesoamerica (2). Scholars also have emphasized the geographical areas of domestication (2)(3)(4), and recent research on the botanical origins and domestication of cacao in South America has focused on the western headwaters region of the Amazon basin in the geographical vicinity of northwestern Colombia (2). Currently, there is no evidence to suggest that early inhabitants of this South American region prepared chocolate in the strict sense.…”

Section: Previous Researchmentioning

confidence: 99%

Cacao use and the San Lorenzo Olmec

Powis

Cyphers

Gaikwad

et al. 2011

Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.

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Mesoamerican peoples had a long history of cacao use—spanning more than 34 centuries—as confirmed by previous identification of cacao residues on archaeological pottery from Paso de la Amada on the Pacific Coast and the Olmec site of El Manatí on the Gulf Coast. Until now, comparable evidence from San Lorenzo, the premier Olmec capital, was lacking. The present study of theobromine residues confirms the continuous presence and use of cacao products at San Lorenzo between 1800 and 1000 BCE, and documents assorted vessels forms used in its preparation and consumption. One elite context reveals cacao use as part of a mortuary ritual for sacrificial victims, an event that occurred during the height of San Lorenzo's power.

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Section: Previous Researchmentioning

confidence: 99%

Cacao use and the San Lorenzo Olmec

Powis

Cyphers

Gaikwad

et al. 2011

Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.

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“…The putative centre of T. cacao diversity was originally hypothesised to be located in the region between Ecuador, Colombia and Peru (Cheesman, 1944) and was later confirmed by a microsatellite marker analysis (Motamayor et al, 2002(Motamayor et al, , 2008. Despite the importance of this plant, little is known about the natural genetic structure of the T. cacao population because most studies have utilised accessions that were originally collected in the wild, but maintained in ex situ germplasm repositories.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Understanding the genetic diversity, spatial genetic structure and mating system at the hierarchical levels of fruits and individuals of a continuous Theobroma cacao population from the Brazilian Amazon

et al. 2010

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Understanding the mating patterns of populations of tree species is a key component of ex situ genetic conservation. In this study, we analysed the genetic diversity, spatial genetic structure (SGS) and mating system at the hierarchical levels of fruits and individuals as well as pollen dispersal patterns in a continuous population of Theobroma cacao in Pará State, Brazil. A total of 156 individuals in a 0.56 ha plot were mapped and genotyped for nine microsatellite loci. For the mating system analyses, 50 seeds were collected from nine seed trees by sampling five fruits per tree (10 seeds per fruit). Among the 156 individuals, 127 had unique multilocus genotypes, and the remaining were clones. The population was spatially aggregated; it demonstrated a significant SGS up to 15 m that could be attributed primarily to the presence of clones. However, the short seed dispersal distance also contributed to this pattern. Population matings occurred mainly via outcrossing, but selfing was observed in some seed trees, which indicated the presence of individual variation for self-incompatibility. The matings were also correlated, especially within (r p(m) ¼ 0.607) rather than among the fruits (r p(m) ¼ 0.099), which suggested that a small number of pollen donors fertilised each fruit. The paternity analysis suggested a high proportion of pollen migration (61.3%), although within the plot, most of the pollen dispersal encompassed short distances (28 m). The determination of these novel parameters provides the fundamental information required to establish long-term ex situ conservation strategies for this important tropical species.

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“…Under natural conditions the tree can reach 20 to 25 m in height (Lachenaud et al, 1997), whereas under cultivation it varies from 3 to 5 m. The geographical origin of cacao is South America (Motamayor et al, 2002), where several wild populations can be found in the Amazon and Guyanian regions. It is considered one of the most important perennial crops in the planet, with an estimated world output of 3.5 millions tons in (ICCO, 2007.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Ecophysiology of the cacao tree

Almeida

Valle

2007

Braz. J. Plant Physiol.

226

137

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Cacao, one of the world's most important perennial crops, is almost exclusively explored for chocolate manufacturing. Most cacao varieties belong to three groups: Criollo, Forastero and Trinitario that vary according to morphology, genetic and geographical origins. It is cropped under the shade of forest trees or as a monocrop without shade. Seedlings initially show an orthotropic growth with leaf emission relatively independent of climate. The maturity phase begins with the emission of plagiotropic branches that form the tree crown. At this stage environmental factors exert a large influence on plant development. Growth and development of cacao are highly dependent on temperature, which mainly affects vegetative growth, flowering and fruit development. Soil flooding decreases leaf area, stomatal conductance and photosynthetic rates in addition to inducing formation of lenticels and adventitious roots. For most genotypes drought resistance is associated with osmotic adjustment. Cacao produces caulescent flowers, which begin dehiscing in late afternoon and are completely open at the beginning of the following morning releasing pollen to a receptive stigma. Non pollinated flowers abscise 24-36 h after anthesis. The percentage of flowers setting pods is in the range 0.5 -5%. The most important parameters determinants of yield are related to: (i) light interception, photosynthesis and capacity of photoassimilate distribution, (ii) maintenance respiration and (iii) pod morphology and seed fermentation, events that can be modified by abiotic factors. Cacao is a shade tolerant species, in which appropriate shading leads to relatively high photosynthetic rates, growth and seed yield. However, heavy shade reduces seed yield and increases incidence of diseases; in fact, cacao yields and light interception are tightly related when nutrient availability is not limiting. High production of non-shaded cacao requires high inputs in protection and nutrition of the crop. Annual radiation and rainfall during the dry season explains 70% of the variations in annual seed yields. Key words: root growth, flowering, pod set, flushing, mineral nutrition Ecofisiologia do cacaueiro: O cacau, um dos mais importantes cultivos perenes no mundo, é quase exclusivamente explorado para a fabricação de chocolate. A maioria das variedades de cacau pertence a três grupos: Criollo, Forasteiro e Trinitário, que variam de acordo com a morfologia, genética e origem geográfica. É cultivado sob sombra de árvores de floresta ou como monocultivo sem sombra. As plântulas inicialmente mostram um crescimento ortotrópico com emissão de folhas relativamente independente do clima. A fase de maturidade inicia-se com a emissão de ramos plagiotrópicos que formam a copa. Nesse estádio, fatores ambientes exercem grande influência no desenvolvimento da planta. O crescimento e o desenvolvimento do cacaueiro são dependentes da temperatura, que afeta principalmente o crescimento vegetativo, florescimento e desenvolvimento do fruto. O alagamento do solo diminui a área fol...

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Cacao domestication I: the origin of the cacao cultivated by the Mayas

Cited by 299 publications

References 25 publications

Cacao use and the San Lorenzo Olmec

Cacao use and the San Lorenzo Olmec

Understanding the genetic diversity, spatial genetic structure and mating system at the hierarchical levels of fruits and individuals of a continuous Theobroma cacao population from the Brazilian Amazon

Ecophysiology of the cacao tree

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