Brominated flame retardants (BFRs) in indoor and outdoor air in a community in Guangzhou, a megacity of southern China

Abstract

a b s t r a c tIndoor environments contribute a significant portion of human exposure to brominated flame retardants (BFRs) because of their extensive use in various household products. This study investigates the occurrence of a number of BFRs in the indoor and outdoor air in a megacity in southern China, in which little information on indoor BFRs contamination is available. The estimated total PBDE concentrations ranged from 1.43 to 57 pg/m 3 indoors and from 1.21 to 1522 pg/m 3 outdoors. The indoor concentrations of lower brominated PBDEs that are mainly derived from the technical penta-and octa-BDE mixtures were higher than or comparable to the outdoors, while the indoor levels of DecaBDEs and decabromodiphenyl ethane (DBDPE) were apparently lower than the outdoors. The seasonal variations of BFR concentrations indicated that evaporation from old indoor products is the primary source of Penta-and OctaBDEs in the air, whereas most DecaBDEs and DBDPE concentrations showing weak temperature-dependence are largely released from industrial activities. The PBDE congener profiles in the air were generally similar, which were dominated by BDE209, 28, and 47; whereas the appreciable indooreoutdoor differences in the compositions are possibly due to emission sources, photochemical degradation, or congener-specific transport of BFRs in the indoor and outdoor air. Significant correlations between the indoor and outdoor BFRs were observed suggesting the exchange of BFRs between the two compartments, which are more noticeable for PentaBDEs and DecaBDEs with strong indoor and outdoor emission sources, respectively. This study provides significant insights into the sources of BFRs in urban air in China.

Pollution Characteristics and Diurnal Variations in Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers in Indoor and Outdoor Air from Vehicle Dismantler Factories in Southern Taiwan

“…Both indoor and outdoor levels of PBDEs in the present study were higher than those in Taiwanese home environments (Σ 14 PBDEs: 81.1 and 13.1 pg m -3 in indoor and outdoor air, respectively) (Shy et al, 2015) and ambient air in the rural area of Pingtung (Σ 14 PBDEs: 15.9 pg m -3 ) (Chao et al, 2014c). As compared with other studies published from 2004 to 2016 and shown in Table 2, the mean level of PBDEs in the indoor air in the present study was lower than those in the vehicle parking areas in southern China (Li et al, 2016) and e-waste storage facilities in Thailand (Muenhor et al, 2010), but levels were still higher than those in the domestic environment (Wilford et al, 2004;Takigami et al, 2009;Shy et al, 2015;Ding et al, 2016). Our value in the outdoor air was only lower than those collected from vehicle parking areas (Li et al, 2016), and in the e-waste storage facilities (Muenhor et al, 2010), and a PRD community (Ding et al, 2016).…”

“…As compared with other studies published from 2004 to 2016 and shown in Table 2, the mean level of PBDEs in the indoor air in the present study was lower than those in the vehicle parking areas in southern China (Li et al, 2016) and e-waste storage facilities in Thailand (Muenhor et al, 2010), but levels were still higher than those in the domestic environment (Wilford et al, 2004;Takigami et al, 2009;Shy et al, 2015;Ding et al, 2016). Our value in the outdoor air was only lower than those collected from vehicle parking areas (Li et al, 2016), and in the e-waste storage facilities (Muenhor et al, 2010), and a PRD community (Ding et al, 2016). In comparison with various indoor environments Thuresson et al, 2012;Newton et al, 2015;Shy et al, 2015), indoor air levels of PBDEs in the present study were lower than those in offices, day care centers, and cars, but higher than those in homes and apartments.…”

“…PBDE levels have not been found to differ in regard to the matched indoor air and outgoing air in ventilation systems Newton et al, 2015) and Björklund et al (2012) indicated indoor air as a significant source of PBDEs from the outdoor environment though ventilation facilities. The inverse result was reported in a recent Chinese study, which revealed that PBDE concentrations in outdoor air in a community in Gungzhou in the Pearl River Delta (PRD) were notably higher than those in indoor air (Ding et al, 2016). Extremely high levels of PBDEs in the indoor and outdoor air have also been found in e-waste workplaces steelmaking plants and dismantling areas (Hearn et al, 2012;Tue et al, 2013;Ren et al, 2014;Li et al, 2015;Xu et al, 2015).…”

“…In our previous studies, BDE-209 concentrations were 59.7% and 70.0% of Σ 14 PBDEs in the ambient air including daytime and nighttime air collected in the rural university (Chao et al, 2014c) and the rural residence (Shy et al, 2015), respectively. The ambient air level of BDE-209 in PRD areas was over 88.4% of the total PBDEs (Ding et al, 2016). PBDEs in nighttime outdoor -7, 15, 17, 28, 47, 49, 66, 71, 77, 85, 99, 100, 119, 126, 138, 139, 140, 153, 154, 156, 183, 184, 191, 196, 197, 203, 206, 207, 208 and 209 Ding et al, 2016 Guangzhou -17, 28, 47, 66, 71, 85, 99, 100, 138, 153, 154, 183, 190, 196, 197, 203, 206, 207, 208 -28, 47, 99, 100, 153, 154, 183, 196, 197, 203, 206, 207, 208 and 209 Muenhor et al, 2010 Thailand E-waste storage facility 46-350 (127) air is dominated by BDE-209 probably due to PBDEs from indoor air to outdoor air in the vehicle dismantling factories and occurrence of photodegradation.…”

“…The unique pollution characterizations and violent diurnal fluctuations in ambient PBDEs usually occur in special events like severe dust storms (Gevao et al, 2010) or because of heavily contaminated regions like e-waste dismantling areas (Chen et al, 2009). Several studies have reported that ambient PBDE concentrations are positively correlated with e-waste industries (Chen et al, 2009;Chen et al, 2011;Ding et al, 2016). Chen et al (2009Chen et al ( , 2011 indicated that average airborne PBDEs in the daytime were two-fold higher than that in nighttime in e-waste recycling and dismantling sites mainly due to temperature and severe emission of PBDEs from these disposal and storage sites.…”