“…We also controlled for firm age , measured as the number of years since the firm was established. In addition, because ownership has been associated with corporate philanthropy (Gao, 2011; Oh, Chang, & Martynov, 2011), we controlled for state ownership , management ownership , and foreign ownership , measured as the percentage of shares held by the Chinese government or its agencies (Xu, Zhang, & Chen, 2018), the percentage of shares held by top managers, and the percentage of shares held by foreign investors, respectively. Furthermore, prior studies have shown board independence to influence corporate philanthropy (Jia & Coffey, 1992), and thus we controlled for this variable, too, calculated as the number of independent directors divided by board size.…”