Biomineralization of Polymer Scaffolds

Abstract

Bioceramics are an important subclass of inorganic, non-metallic biomaterials. Attributing to their bioactivity and the ability to form bonds with native bone, bioceramics are increasingly used in medical implants, especially for bone repair and regeneration. With chemical composition similar to that of native bone, hydroxyapatite (HAp), a type of bioceramics, may impart to biomaterial implants biocompatibility, osteoconductivity, as well as surface properties that are germane to osteointegration at the bone-implant interface. However, porous bioceramics are very brittle and have low fracture toughness and compressive strength, which limits their uses as bulk materials for orthopedic implants. Increasing their mechanical strength by reducing the porosity may prevent tissue infiltration, therefore, bone regeneration. In comparison, polymers may mimic the mechanical properties of native bone, however, may lack the appropriate surface properties to seamlessly integrate with natural bone. There is a critical need to combine the bulk properties of polymers with the surface properties of bioceramics in the design of functional scaffolds for bone tissue engineering. There are several ways to incorporate bioceramics on scaffold surfaces, including plasma spraying, sputter coating, physical adsorption, laser deposition, and biomineralization. Biomineralization, which allows easy fabrication of bioceramics under physiological conditions, provides an effective means to produce bonelike minerals, e.g., HAp, on scaffold surfaces. By following the cascade of biological mineralization in vivo, biomineralization in vitro on polymers may be achieved using several different methods, including immersion in simulated body fluid (SBF), alternative soaking in calcium and phosphate solutions, urea-mediated solution mineralization, enzymatic method, and direct incorporation of HAp nanoparticles into polymers. The uniformity, structure, and composition of the bioceramic coatings can be fine-tuned by governing bimineralization parameters such as composition and concentration of the immersion solution, immersion time, temperature, and agitation. A variety of surface modification techniques can be chosen to functionalize/activate polymer surfaces to facilitate biomineralization. In this review, the mechanism for biomineralization in vivo, different mechanisms and methods for biomineralization in vitro, surface modifications for enhanced biomineralization, polymers for biomineralization, and biomineralization for drug delivery will be discussed in details.

The Tunable Porous Structure of Gelatin–Bioglass Nanocomposite Scaffolds for Bone Tissue Engineering Applications: Physicochemical, Mechanical, and In Vitro Properties

“…Further, negatively charged functional groups of gelatin (COO − ) help the absorption of calcium ions by creating an electrostatic attraction. This is followed by the attraction of phosphate and improved the formation of hydroxyapatite layers …”

“…This is followed by the attraction of phosphate and improved the formation of hydroxyapatite layers. [61,62] FTIR results after mineralization of scaffolds in SBF solution, both in the presence and absence of BGNPs, are illustrated in Figure 8a. Small changes appeared after 7 d in the wavenumber of 565 cm −1 that are related to the bending vibration of PO bonds in tetrahedral phosphate (PO 4 3− ) of precipitated calcium phosphate crystals.…”

3D Hierarchical, Nanostructured Chitosan/PLA/HA Scaffolds Doped with TiO2/Au/Pt NPs with Tunable Properties for Guided Bone Tissue Engineering

“…No other degradation products are observed. Such chemical structure will provide appropriate chemical conditions for bone-forming hydroxyapatite crystallization and stimulate its nucleation initiation, since polymeric layers will act as an organic template [40,41]. The incorporation of the aspartic acid also proves the increased intensity of free amino groups in the crosslinked polymer (1574 and 1148 cm −1 ), compared to pure chitosan (1593 and 1149 cm −1 ).…”

“…Acidic groups provide local charge accumulation, which helps calcium and phosphorous ions' binding [41]. The chitosan layer mimics the naturally occurring organic bone-forming components on which minerals deposition occurs [40]. Introduced molecules of aspartic acid, as well as poly (lactic acid), enable biological system imitation.…”

“…The composites were prepared by using polymers of known applicability in tissue engineering [36][37][38]. Ready scaffolds with tunable properties were characterized over their physicochemical properties, such as chemical structure, crystallinity, morphology, effect on biomineralization, and biocompatibility with human osteosarcoma (MG-63) cell lines [39][40][41]. Obtained results showed that proposed biomaterials display extraordinary properties and may significantly contribute to bone-tissue-engineering development.…”