Biomarkers of sepsis in pigs, horses and cattle: from acute phase proteins to procalcitonin

Abstract

Sepsis is a complex clinical syndrome triggered by an inflammatory host response to an infection. It is usually complicated to detect and diagnose, and has severe consequences in human and veterinary health, especially when treatment is not started early. Therefore, efforts to detect sepsis accurately are needed. In addition, its proper diagnosis could reduce the misuse of antibiotics, which is essential fighting against antimicrobial resistance. This case is a particular issue in farm animals, as antibiotics have been traditionally given massively, but now they are becoming increasingly restricted. When sepsis is suspected in animals, the most frequently used biomarkers are acute phase proteins such as C-reactive protein, serum amyloid A and haptoglobin, but their concentrations can increase in other inflammatory conditions. In human patients, the most promising biomarkers to detect sepsis are currently procalcitonin and presepsin, and there is a wide range of other biomarkers under study. However, there is little information on the application of these biomarkers in veterinary species. This review aims to describe the general concepts of sepsis and the current knowledge about the biomarkers of sepsis in pigs, horses, and cattle and to discuss possible advances in the field.

Acute phase proteins in cattle and swine: A review

“…Acute phase proteins (APPs) are produced by the liver upon stimulation by pro‐inflammatory cytokines, such as interleukins‐1β and ‐6 (IL‐1β and IL‐6) and tumor necrosis factor‐α (TNF‐α), in response to infection, inflammation, or trauma. These cytokines are thus used as biomarkers for these conditions in experimental and field studies, and many interesting reviews have been previously published as a general topic 1–8 or about specific animal species 9–13 . Pro‐inflammatory cytokines may also be useful in monitoring inflammatory pathologies, but they are cleared from the circulation within a few hours, whereas APP concentrations remain altered for a long time after the stimulus.…”

“…These cytokines are thus used as biomarkers for these conditions in experimental and field studies, and many interesting reviews have been previously published as a general topic 1-8 or about specific animal species. [9][10][11][12][13] Pro-inflammatory cytokines may also be useful in monitoring inflammatory pathologies, but they are cleared from the circulation within a few hours, whereas APP concentrations remain altered for a long time after the stimulus.APPs are classified as positive (major, moderate, or minor) or negative depending on if concentrations are increased or decreased after a triggering event. There is a consensus as to which are the most relevant APPs in cattle and swine (Table 1).…”

“…These cytokines are thus used as biomarkers for these conditions in experimental and field studies, and many interesting reviews have been previously published as a general topic 1-8 or about specific animal species. [9][10][11][12][13] Pro-inflammatory cytokines may also be useful in monitoring inflammatory pathologies, but they are cleared from the circulation within a few hours, whereas APP concentrations remain altered for a long time after the stimulus.…”

Molecularly imprinted polymers as effective capturing receptors in a pseudo-ELISA immunoassay for procalcitonin detection in veterinary species

“…Nowadays, the quantification of PCT in human medicine represents the state of the art for the diagnosis of sepsis, the monitoring of disease and the antimicrobial stewardship 57,58 . In contrast to the high interest for human procalcitonin, there is no clinical use of PCT in veterinary species and there are very few papers dedicated to its detection 59,60 . Among the domestic animals, procalcitonin studies are more in horses than in the other species.…”

“…57,58 In contrast to the high interest in human procalcitonin, there is no clinical use of PCT in veterinary species and there are very few papers dedicated to its detection. 59,60 Among domestic animals, procalcitonin studies are more in horses than in other species. An increase in the circulating level of PCT has been observed in adult horses during pathological conditions caused by bacteria or by the translocation of bacteria and/or their products into the bloodstream.…”