Beyond Lithium-Based Batteries

Abstract

We discuss the latest developments in alternative battery systems based on sodium, magnesium, zinc and aluminum. In each case, we categorize the individual metals by the overarching cathode material type, focusing on the energy storage mechanism. Specifically, sodium-ion batteries are the closest in technology and chemistry to today’s lithium-ion batteries. This lowers the technology transition barrier in the short term, but their low specific capacity creates a long-term problem. The lower reactivity of magnesium makes pure Mg metal anodes much safer than alkali ones. However, these are still reactive enough to be deactivated over time. Alloying magnesium with different metals can solve this problem. Combining this with different cathodes gives good specific capacities, but with a lower voltage (<1.3 V, compared with 3.8 V for Li-ion batteries). Zinc has the lowest theoretical specific capacity, but zinc metal anodes are so stable that they can be used without alterations. This results in comparable capacities to the other materials and can be immediately used in systems where weight is not a problem. Theoretically, aluminum is the most promising alternative, with its high specific capacity thanks to its three-electron redox reaction. However, the trade-off between stability and specific capacity is a problem. After analyzing each option separately, we compare them all via a political, economic, socio-cultural and technological (PEST) analysis. The review concludes with recommendations for future applications in the mobile and stationary power sectors.

Laboratory Operando XAS Study of Sodium Iron Titanite Cathode in the Li-Ion Half-Cell

“…Much effort has been invested in the development of hybrid Li/Na-ion systems based on polycationic electrode materials or the use of Li-based (Na-based) electrode or electrolyte in Na-based (Li-based) electrochemical systems. Such combinations may benefit from both types of alkali metal chemistries and compensate for their primary drawbacks [ 5 ]. As an example, the electrochemical performance of overlithiated oxide cathode materials may be drastically improved by concentration-difference-driven molten salt Li/Na ion exchange [ 6 ].…”

A Progress Report on Metal–Sulfur Batteries

“…Introducing these metals into the club of nonaqueous batteries generally started by following the strategies and principles of Li + ‐ion batteries through employing an insertion‐type cathode to couple with a metal anode. [ 55 ] Though considerable headway has been made for each of these metal batteries, none of them are now well developed to a level that can be on par with the Li + ‐ion system. [ 56 ] Due to the larger ionic size or the higher charge of divalent or a trivalent cations, intercalation reactions of the Na + , K + , Mg 2+ , Ca 2+ , and Al 3+ are much more sluggish than that of Li + ion.…”

Enabling Circular Economy: The Overlooked Role of Inorganic Materials Chemistry

“…An example in which awareness of elements diversity plays a pivotal role is the strategic field of batteries, in particular the determination of possible alternatives to benchmark lithium‐based ones [45] . A recent contribution [46] discusses the most recent developments in alternative battery systems based on sodium, magnesium, zinc and aluminium. For each individual metal, the energy storage mechanism were surveyed, in turn depending upon the redox and electronic properties of the elements.…”

“…However, the trade‐off between stability and specific capacity still represents an issue. This example outlines the complexity to address element‐for‐element substitution [46] …”