Benzotriazoles and benzothiazoles in human urine from several countries: A perspective on occurrence, biotransformation, and human exposure

Abstract

Benzotriazole (BTR) and benzothiazole (BTH) derivatives are high-production-volume chemicals that are mainly used as corrosion inhibitors, and are widely distributed in the environment. BTR derivatives are found in plastics, dishwasher detergents, dry cleaning equipment, and de-icing/anti-icing fluids. BTH derivatives are found in rubber materials, herbicides, slimicides, algicides, fungicides, photosensitizers, azo dyes, drugs, de-icing/anti-icing fluids, and food flavors. However, exposure of humans to BTRs and BTHs is still not known. In this study, six BTRs (1H-benzotriazole, 1-hydroxy-benzotriazole, 4- and 5-hydroxy-benzotriazole [mixture of two isomers], tolyltriazole, xylyltriazole [or 5,6-dimethyl-1H-benzotriazole], and 5-chloro-benzotriazole) and six BTHs (benzothiazole, 2-morpholin-4-yl-benzothiazole, 2-hydroxy-benzothiazole, 2-methylthio-benzothiazole, 2-amino-benzothiazole, and 2-thiocyanomethylthio-benzothiazole) were determined in human urine collected from general populations in seven countries (the U.S., Greece, Vietnam, Korea, Japan, China, and India). The median urinary concentration of the sum of five BTRs (Σ5BTRs; 4- and 5-hydroxy-benzotriazole were not included) ranged from 0.2 (Korea) to 2.8 (India)ng/mL among the countries studied, with the highest concentration of 24.5ng/mL found in a sample from China. Xylyltriazole was found more frequently in urine from all five Asian countries than in urine from the U.S. and Greece. The median concentration of the sum of the six BTHs (Σ6BTHs) ranged from 3.6 (U.S.) to 10.9 (Japan)ng/mL among the countries studied, with a maximum detection rate of 100% in urine samples from Vietnam; BTH was the predominant derivative, accounting for, on average, 43% of the Σ6BTH concentration. Based on the concentrations and detection rates of several BTR and BTH derivatives in urine, possible metabolic transformation pathways of these compounds were presented and human exposure doses calculated. The estimated daily intake doses of BTRs and BTHs were on the order of a few to few tens of micrograms per day.

The washout effect during laundry on benzothiazole, benzotriazole, quinoline, and their derivatives in clothing textiles

“…Benzothiazoles and benzotriazoles have also been detected in urine samples collected from general populations in USA, Greece, Vietnam, Korea, Japan, China, and India (Asimakopoulos et al 2013b), while BUVs have been found in fish (Kim et al 2011), clams, oysters, and gastropods (Nakata et al 2009). Although benzothiazoles and benzotriazoles occur widely in the environment, and have been found in humans and aquatic organisms, the toxicological and eco-toxicological information is scarce.…”

“…This indicates a chronic impact, not only on the aquatic environment, but possibly also regarding human exposure to these chemicals. In a study, Asimakopoulos and co-workers have showed the occurrence of benzothiazoles and benzotriazoles in humans from different countries, yet the effects on human health of these compounds are not clarified (Asimakopoulos et al 2013b). …”

Accumulation of 19 environmental phenolic and xenobiotic heterocyclic aromatic compounds in human adipose tissue

“…A few studies have reported on the toxic effects of BTR derivatives. 1H-BTR and TTR have been shown to be phytotoxic, 1H-BTR to be mutagenic to bacteria (Salmonella, Escherichia coli), and TTR to be toxic to microorganisms (Asimakopoulos et al, 2013b). BTHs are used as corrosion inhibitors, herbicides, slimicides (in the paper and pulp industry), algicides, fungicides (in the lumber and leather industries), and photosensitizers (Asimakopoulos et al, 2013b).…”

Introduction: Personal Care Products in the Aquatic Environment

“…Benzotriazole (1-H-benzotriazole) is a very versatile compound widely used by their anticorrosive, antifreeze, coolant, vapour phase inhibitor, photographic developer, drug precursor and biocide properties [55][56][57]. Its extensive use raises concerns about its presence in the environment.…”