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Eating Speed, Eating Frequency, and Their Relationships with Diet Quality, Adiposity, and Metabolic Syndrome, or Its Components

“…Compared to the dietary patterns involving three meals or six meals, eating six high protein daily meals led to lower levels of fasting plasma glucose [ 68 ]. Other studies [ 72 , 73 ] reported no significant effects of different eating frequency patterns on MetS components.…”

“…The year of publication spanned from 1964 to 2020. Nine studies (one study explored both eating speed/rate and eating frequency) included only children [ 4 , 12 , 14 , 24 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 30 , 31 ] one was based on children and adolescents (≤19 years-old) [ 51 ], two articles involved only adolescents [ 25 , 29 ], four articles recruited children, adolescents and young adults [ 10 , 15 , 17 , 32 ] and finally, 36 articles included only adults [ 2 , 5 , 9 , 11 , 13 , 16 , 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 65 , 66 , 67 , 68 , 69 , 70 , 71 , 72 , ...…”

“…Compared with one daily meal, the group consuming the three daily meals pattern had a significantly higher body weight. In a Turkish study, different dietary patterns showed no effects for WC or BMI [ 73 ]. Similarly, an American trial studying meal frequency also did not observe a significant effect on body weight, WC or BMI [ 71 ].…”

Healthy Obese Subjects Differ in Chronotype, Sleep Habits, and Adipose Tissue Fatty Acid Composition from Their Non-Healthy Counterparts

“…In turn, this would diminish insulin sensitivity [38,39], as occurs in the MUO phenotype. Other authors have shown that eating six times per day reduces fasting insulin levels compared with eating three times per day [40], and a lower number of daily eating episodes has been associated with abdominal obesity and high levels of triglycerides [41]. On the other hand, a greater number of daily portions of fruit was associated with a lower risk of developing MUO phenotype [4,42].…”

Nutrition and physical activity: An Obesity Medicine Association (OMA) Clinical Practice Statement 2022

“… May reduce caloric intake with variable effects on lean body mass, resting metabolic rate, and total energy expenditure, often dependent upon concomitant physical activity [ 98 , 99 , 101 , 104 ]. May reduce body weight and improve metabolic parameters (e.g., improve insulin sensitivity, blood pressure, lipids, and inflammatory markers) [ 98 , 99 , 101 , [104] , [105] , [106] , [107] ]. Potential disadvantages: Does not necessarily emphasize healthful meal quality [ 108 ].…”