Avalanche photodiodes for high energy particle tracking in 130 nm CMOS technology

Abstract

Particle detection can be done with many different sensors. In this case, the particle detector is based on avalanche photodiodes (APDs) integrated on standard CMOS technology. The integration of the sensors allows the possibility to integrate also the processing circuitry, reducing the volume of components, the complexity, and also the cost of the total device. The sensor is based on a double sensor detection to discriminate the inherent noise of APDs. An electrical model of the sensor, including noise modeling of dark counts and afterpulsing, based on fabricated component, has been developed to proof the suitability of the proposed detector circuit.

Modeling Emerging Semiconductor Devices for Circuit Simulation

“…Various SPAD models have been presented in literature to predict the actual behavior and choose suitable parameters during the design phase to ensure the optimal performance for CMOS SPAD systems in existing and new applications [29,[35][36][37][38][39][40][41][42][43][44][45][46][47]. State of the art SPAD modeling approaches can be grouped in three sub groups named as model based on device physics, circuit simulation model, and model based on information theory.…”

“…SPAD stochastic phenomena affect the switching behavior of the device and define the transition from no-avalanche to avalanche (turn-on) and vice versa. In order to provide a more realistic simulation platform, more comprehensive models [34,[42][43][44][45] include stochastic nature of Geiger mode operation based on theoretical equations of dark count rate, breakdown probability, signal-to-noise ratio and afterpulsing probability.…”

“…The behavioral model presented in [42], simulates the noise model due to dark count rate and after pulsing based on fabricated component for the first time. The model improves the previous circuit model [41] by adding the noise sources of avalanche photodiode.…”

“…In addition, they include a dependent voltage source to represent the dependence of breakdown voltage (V br ) on gate voltage (V G ) and the reverse biased resistance as a variable resistance depending on gate bias voltage Figure 9. SPAD behavioral model including I-V behavior and noise sources for dark counts and after-pulsing [42]. and reverse bias voltage ( Figure 10).…”

Computational Models in Engineering

“…For the graded beam, Young's modulus (E) is varied linearly between 4 GPa and 12 GPa, and the mass density (ρ) is varied linearly between 1000 kg/cm 3 and 2000 kg/cm 3 . These material properties correspond to values used in [42]. For the homogeneous beam, the mass density (ρ) is taken as the average of the graded beam counterparts, and Young's modulus (E) is calculated such that the equivalent E/ρ value equals that of the graded specimen in an average sense, i.e.,…”