Automatic encoding of event frequency: Further findings.

Abstract

The three experiments reported in this article examined the process by which • frequency of occurrence information is registered in memory. Based on the hypothesis that this information is encoded automatically, performance on a frequency discrimination task was predicted to be insensitive to a variety of manipulations expected to influence free recall, a task requiring considerable effortful processing and therefore used as a counterpoint to the frequency task in two of the experiments. These expectations were confirmed. Frequency performance did not increase with practice, was unaffected by appropriateness of practice, was not influenced by accuracy of test expectations, and was not hindered by competing demands. Also, no stable individual differences were obtained in discriminating relative frequency, and strategy effects were small. These results conform to criteria of automatic processing. They are also in striking contrast to the free-recall findings. Free-recall performance increased with practice, was affected by appropriateness of practice and accuracy of test expectations, and was hindered by competing demands. Also, stable individual differences were obtained in free recall.

Retrieval of item frequency information in a continuous memory task

“…The failure to obtain a benefit from practice in frequency discrimination has been used as one of the criteria to suggest that the encoding of frequency information is an automatic process (Zacks et al, 1982). Thus, the finding of a practice effect in the present study suggests that the encoding of frequency information in the continuous task is not an automatic process.…”

“…Practice effects have not been observed in frequency discrimination studies using a study-test procedure for absolute frequency judgments (Hasher & Chromiak, 1977) and for forced-choice frequency judgments (Zacks et al, 1982). However, these studies examined practice effects over only a small number of trials.…”

“…Hasher and Chromiak (1977) failed to observe an effect of practice over two study-test trials in an absolute judgment of frequency task, and Zacks, Hasher, and Sanft (1982) did not obtain a practice effect over four study-test trials in a forced-ehoice frequency discrimination task. Because of the multisession procedure used in the present study, the subjects had ample opportunity to benefit from practice.…”

Probabilistic mental models: A Brunswikian theory of confidence.

“…A large literature exists that suggests that (a) memory is often (but not always) excellent in storing frequency information from various environments and (b) the registering of event occurrences for frequency judgments is a fairly automatic cognitive process requiring very little attention or conscious effort (e.g, Gigerenzer, 1984;Hasher, Goldstein, & Toppino, 1977;Howell & Burnett, 1978;Zacks, Hasher, &Sanft, 1982). Hasher and Zacks (1979) concluded that frequency of occurrence, spatial location, time, and word meaning are among the few aspects of the environment that are encoded automatically and that encoding of frequency information is "automatic at least in part because of innate factors" (p. 360).…”

An encounter frequency account of how experience affects likelihood estimation

“…At the liberal arts school, David is described as having a couple humans track at least some types of event frequencies automatically (Hasher & Zacks, 1984). Hasher, Zacks, and colleagues have conducted numerous experiments showing that humans automatically track word frequency (Hasher & Zacks, 1984;Hasher, Zacks, Rose, & Sanft, 1987;Zacks, Hasher, & Sanft, 1982). This ability appears to be a core cognitive mechanism (Gelman, 1996), an assumption consistent with Zacks's (1979, 1984) failure to find any individual differences between people of different ages and Zacks et al's failure to find an effect of intelligence.…”