Atlantic Salmon (<i>Salmo salar</i>): The “Super-Chicken” of the Sea?

Torrissen, Ole; Olsen, Rolf Erik; Toresen, Reidar; Hemre, Gro Ingunn; Tacon, Albert G. J.; Asche, Frank; Hardy, Ronald W.; Lall, Santosh P.

doi:10.1080/10641262.2011.597890

Cited by 137 publications

(93 citation statements)

References 106 publications

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“…However, the fundamental flaw with FIFO ratio is that it has no nutritional basis and is in no way a measure of production efficiency. It is well established that aquaculture is generally very efficient and top performing species like Atlantic salmon (Torrissen et al, 2011) have a lower feed conversion ratio (FCR) than any terrestrial animal production with commercial values of 1.1 to 1.2 compared to ~2 for poultry, ~3 for pigs, and > 6 for lamb and beef (Shepherd and Little, 2014). In addition, salmon show higher protein and energy retentions, and harvest and edible yields than terrestrial meat production (Shepherd and Little, 2014).…”

Section: The Real Problem Of Fo As a Source Of N-3 Lc-pufa For Aquacumentioning

confidence: 99%

Omega-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids and aquaculture in perspective

2015

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Abbreviations: ARA, arachidonic acid (20:4n-6); CVD, cardiovascular disease; DHA, docosahexaenoic acid (22:6n-3); DPA, docosapentaenoic acid (22:5n-3); EFA, essential fatty acid; Elovl, fatty acid elongase; EPA, eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5n-3); Fads, fatty acyl desaturase; FM, fishmeal; FO, fish oil; LC-PUFA, long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (≥ C20 ≥ 3 double bonds); LOA, linoleic acid (18:2n-6); LNA, linolenic acid (18:3n-3); PUFA, polyunsaturated fatty acid; TAG, triacylglycerol; VO, vegetable oil. ABSTRACTIn the 40 years since the essentiality of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in fish was first established by determining quantitative requirements for 18:3n-3 and 18:2n-6 in rainbow trout, essential fatty acid (EFA) research has gone through distinct phases. For 20 years the focus was primarily on determining qualitative and quantitative EFA requirements of fish species. Nutritional and biochemical studies showed major differences between fish species based on whether C 18 PUFA or long-chain (LC)-PUFA were required to satisfy requirements. In contrast, in the last 20 years, research emphasis shifted to determining "optimal" levels of EFA to support growth of fish fed diets with increased lipid content and where growth expectations were much higher. This required greater knowledge of the roles and functions of EFA in metabolism and physiology, and how these impacted on fish health and disease. Requirement studies were more focused on early life stages, in particular larval marine fish, defining not only levels, but also balances between different EFA. Finally, a major driver in the last 10-15 years has been the unavoidable replacement of fish oil and fishmeal in feeds and the impacts that this can have on n-3 LC-PUFA contents of diets and farmed fish, and the human consumer. Thus, dietary n-3 in fish feeds can be defined by three levels.Firstly, the minimum level required to satisfy EFA requirements and thus prevent nutritional pathologies. This level is relatively small and easy to supply even with today's current high demand for fish oil. The second level is that required to sustain maximum growth and optimum health in fish being fed modern high-energy diets. The balance between different PUFA and LC-PUFA is important and defining them is more challenging, and so ideal levels and balances are still not well understood, particularly in relation to fish health. The third level is currently driving much research; how can we supply sufficient n-3 LC-PUFA to maintain the nutritional quality of farmed fish at the same level as 20 years ago, and similar or better than in wild fish? This level far exceeds the biological requirements of the fish itself and to satisfy it we require entirely new sources of n-3 LC-PUFA. We cannot rely on the finite and limited marine resources that we can sustainably harvest or 3 efficiently recycle. We need to produce n-3 LC-PUFA de novo and all possible options should be considered.Keywords: Fish oil; essential fatty acids; nutrition; health; metabolism; sustainability 4 Highl...

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Section: The Real Problem Of Fo As a Source Of N-3 Lc-pufa For Aquacumentioning

confidence: 99%

Omega-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids and aquaculture in perspective

2015

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“…The production of Atlantic salmon Salmo salar (L.) in Norway reached 1.5 million tons in 2009, making Norway the greatest producer of captive Atlantic salmon in the world (Torrissen et al 2011). The parasitic sea louse Lepeophteirus salmonis (Krøyer) has been reported to cause increased cortisol levels, alterations in physiological homeostasis, osmotic imbalance and mortality in salmonids (Grimnes & Jakobsen 1996;Bjorn et al 2001;Heuch et al 2005;Sivertsgard et al 2007) and salmon farms are assumed to be among the main causes of mortality in juvenile wild salmonids, constituting a contributing factor to decreasing stocks of wild fish (Bjorn et al 2001;Krkosek et al 2007;Costello 2009).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

The effect of temperature and fish size on growth of juvenile lumpfish (Cyclopterus lumpus L.)

et al. 2014

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“…Suspended pen farming of salmon is associated with a nearly continuous emission of non-ingested feed material and fish faeces that leave production pens and become deposited on the seabed surrounding the farms (Karakassis et al 2002, Valdemarsen et al 2012, Wang et al 2012. Emissions vary in space and time, but for Atlantic salmon it is estimated that lost feed may approximate 5% of the total amount delivered, while annual loss of faecal material is estimated at ~11 to 13% of salmon bio-mass in a farm (Kutti 2008, Torrissen et al 2011. Combined feed and faecal emissions from Nor wegian salmon farms alone are thought to total 245 000 t yr −1…”

Section: Deposition and Pollution Risksmentioning

confidence: 99%