Associations of n-3, n-6 Fatty Acids Intakes and n-6:n-3 Ratio with the Risk of Depressive Symptoms: NHANES 2009–2016

Abstract

Many studies have explored the association between n-3 fatty acids and depression, but research on the associations of n-6 fatty acids and n-6:n-3 ratio with depression is more scarce, and the results are controversial. Therefore, we conducted this cross-sectional study to explore the associations of n-3 and n-6 fatty acid intakes and n-6:n-3 ratio with the risk of depressive symptoms using data from National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2009–2016. Dietary data on n-3 and n-6 fatty acids were obtained through two 24-h dietary recall interviews, and were adjusted by energy. Depressive symptoms were measured by PHQ-9 (nine-item Patient Health Questionnaire). We applied logistic regression and restricted cubic spline models to assess the relationships of n-3 and n-6 fatty acids intake and n-6:n-3 ratio with the risk of depressive symptoms. A total of 17,431 individuals over 18 years old were enrolled in this study. In the multivariate-adjusted model 2, compared with the lowest category, the highest odd ratios (ORs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for n-3 fatty acid intake and n-6:n-3 ratio were 0.71 (0.55–0.92) and 1.66 (1.10–2.50), and middle OR (95% CI) for n-6 fatty acid intake was 0.72 (0.56–0.92), respectively. Our study suggests that n-3 and n-6 fatty acids intake were inversely associated with the risk of depressive symptoms, while the n-6:n-3 ratio was positively associated with the risk of depressive symptoms.

Effect of dietary supplementation with full-fat silkworm (Bombyx mori L.) chrysalis meal on growth performance and meat quality of Rhode Island Red × Fayoumi crossbred chickens

“…Furthermore, considering that cardiovascular diseases contribute significantly to global disability and of mortality in humans, and that recent studies (Zhang et al 2020) have positively associated n-6/n-3 ratios with the risk of depressive symptoms, any effort to reduce the n-6/n-3 PUFAs ratio in the diets of the population of Western countries would concur to partly alleviate suffering and social discomfort.…”

Dietary Vitamin C and Vitamin C Derived from Vegetables Are Inversely Associated with the Risk of Depressive Symptoms among the General Population

“…According to previous literature on dietary intake and depression [ 25 , 26 , 27 ], we included a series of covariates. Demographic characteristic variables included sex, age, educational levels, marital status, poverty-income ratio (PIR), and race.…”

Important considerations when assessing the effect of essential fatty acids on cognitive performance

“…However, cognitive performance is a highly fluid and complex measurement that is affected by physical, mental, and emotional aspects of one's life. The authors have incorporated several of the above covariates in their other studies using NHANES [5,8] and thus are available and should be included in future studies.…”

“…While the authors have appropriately controlled for demographic, socioeconomic, physical activity, and cardiometabolic comorbidity factors, there are several other covariates that need to be accounted for, including 1) vitamin and mineral consumption (as authors have mentioned, vitamin Bs [ 2 ], vitamin D [ 3 ], folate [ 4 ], among others, have all shown protective effects on cognitive function), 2) other dietary consumption (protein intake [ 5 ] has been shown to be protective whereas saturated fats and refined sugars [ 6 ] have been associated with cognitive decline), 3) source of fatty acid (plant-based vs. animal-based [ 7 ]), 4) mental health status (e.g. depression [ 8 ] using the nine-item Patient Health Questionnaire), 5) other non-cardiometabolic comorbidities such as liver disease, pre-diabetes, and gastrointestinal disorders [ 9 ] that alter the gut microbiome, 6) behavioral factors such as smoking status [ 10 ], 7) day-to-day activities (e.g. retired vs. stay at home vs. workplace as well as type of work), and 8) variability of 24-h dietary recall from first interview to second interview to get an idea of an individual’s dietary consistency.…”