Optical microscopy
techniques are ideal for live cell imaging for
real-time nanoparticle tracking of nanoparticle localization. However,
the quantification of nanoparticle uptake is usually evaluated by
analytical methods that require cell isolation. Luminescent labeling
of gold nanoparticles with transition metal probes yields particles
with attractive photophysical properties, enabling cellular tracking
using confocal and time-resolved microscopies. In the current study,
gold nanoparticles coated with a red-luminescent ruthenium transition
metal complex are used to quantify and track particle uptake and localization.
Analysis of the red-luminescence signal from particles is used as
a metric of cellular uptake, which correlates to total cellular gold
and ruthenium content, independently measured and correlated by inductively
coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Tracking of the luminescence signal
provides evidence of direct diffusion of the nanoparticles across
the cytoplasmic membrane with particles observed in the cytoplasm
and mitochondria as nonclustered “free” nanoparticles.
Electron microscopy and inhibition studies identified macropinocytosis
of clusters of particles into endosomes as the major mechanism of
uptake. Nanoparticles were tracked inside GFP-tagged cells by following
the red-luminescence signal of the ruthenium complex. Tracking of
the particles demonstrates their initial location in early endosomes
and, later, in lysosomes and autophagosomes. Colocalization was quantified
by calculating the Pearson’s correlation coefficient between
red and green luminescence signals and confirmed by electron microscopy.
Accumulation of particles in autophagosomes correlated with biochemical
evidence of active autophagy, but there was no evidence of detachment
of the luminescent label or breakup of the gold core. Instead, accumulation
of particles in autophagosomes caused organelle swelling, breakdown
of the surrounding membranes, and endosomal release of the nanoparticles
into the cytoplasm. The phenomenon of endosomal release has important
consequences for the toxicity, cellular targeting, and therapeutic
future applications of gold nanoparticles.