Assessment of stress markers in restrained individuals following physical stress with and without sham CED activation

Physical restraint within the prehospital Emergency Medical Care Environment: A scoping review

“…There were 23 articles published more than 10 years ago [12] , [13] , [14] , [15] , [16] , [17] , [18] , [19] , [20] , [21] , [22] , [23] , [24] , [25] , [26] , [27] , [28] , [29] , [30] , [31] , [32] , [33] , [34] , three in the last 10 years [35] , [36] , [37] , and our articles in the last five years [38] , [39] , [40] , [41] .…”

“…Most of the articles were concentrated in North America, with the United States of America contributing 25 articles [ [12] , [13] , [14] , [15] , [16] , [17] , [18] , [19] , 21 , 22 , [24] , [25] , [26] , [27] , [28] , [29] , [30] , [31] , [32] , [33] , [34] , [35] , [36] , [37] , 41 ], and Canada two [ 20 , 40 ]. There was one article from England [23] and one from the Netherlands [39] , as well as one combined article from New Zealand and Australia [38] .…”

“…The review or description of physical restraint concepts was focused on in 10 articles [ 12 , 13 , 15 , [19] , [20] , [21] , 24 , 25 , 29 , 38 ]. There were nine articles that investigated the physiological harm and/or disturbance caused by physical restraint [ 18 , 22 , 23 , 27 , 31 , 33 , 35 , 36 , 41 ]. There were six articles that described physical restraint and violence against prehospital providers [ 14 , 16 , 17 , 26 , 28 , 37 ], further, two articles described physical restraint application/use by law enforcement personnel [ 20 , 39 ].…”

“…The reviewed articles were divided into 18 retrospective [ [12] , [13] , [14] , [15] , [16] , [17] , [19] , [20] , [21] , [24] , [25] , [26] , 28 , [37] , [38] , [39] ] and 12 prospective articles [ 18 , 22 , 23 , 27 , [30] , [31] , [32] , [33] , [34] , [35] , [36] , 41 ]. Recurrent methodologies included eight review articles, eight randomized experimental control articles, four cross-sectional articles and three case studies.…”

“… 0 R PR Psychiatric transfers and restraint are understudied; outlined the associated harm & a decreased frequency in the utilisation of physical restraint/s. Sloane et al ., 2020 [41] USA Investigate physiological effects of stress whilst retrained. 25 P PR Co-peptin levels were higher in stressed, No significant effects found a United States of America b Canada c England d Australia and New Zealand e Netherlands f Retrospective g Prospective h Physical restraint i Agitation management j Sudden cardiac arrest k Respiratory distress syndrome l Emergency medical services ⁎ - Average of 47 restraint procedures over 6 years ⁎⁎ - 77 of 271 restrained patients during a one-year study …”