Assessment of Domestic Wastewater Disposal in Some Selected Wards of Maiduguri Metropolis, Borno State, Nigeria

Abstract

The concentration of eleven antibiotics (trimethoprim, oxytetracycline, ciprofloxacin, azithromycin, cefotaxime, doxycycline, sulfamethoxazole, erythromycin, clarithromycin, ofloxacin, norfloxacin), three decongestants (naphazoline, oxymetazoline, xylometazoline) and the antiviral drug oseltamivir's active metabolite, oseltamivir carboxylate (OC), were measured weekly at 21 locations within the River Thames catchment in England during the month of November 2009, the autumnal peak of the influenza A[H1N1]pdm09 pandemic. The aim was to quantify the pharmaceutical response to the pandemic and compare this to drug use during the late pandemic (March 2010) and the inter-pandemic periods (May 2011). A large and small wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) were sampled in November 2009 to understand the differential fate of the analytes in the two WWTPs prior to their entry in the receiving river and to estimate drug users using a wastewater epidemiology approach. Mean hourly OC concentrations in the small and large WWTP's influent were 208 and 350 ng/L (max, 2070 and 550 ng/L, respectively). Erythromycin was the most concentrated antibiotic measured in Benson and Oxford WWTPs influent (max = 6,870 and 2,930 ng/L, respectively). Napthazoline and oxymetazoline were the most frequently detected and concentrated decongestant in the Benson WWTP influent (1650 and 67 ng/L) and effluent (696 and 307 ng/L), respectively, but were below detection in the Oxford WWTP. OC was found in 73% of November 2009's weekly river samples (max = 193 ng/L), but only in 5% and 0% of the late-and inter-pandemic river samples, respectively. The mean river concentration of each antibiotic during the pandemic largely fell between 17-74 ng/L, with clarithromycin (max = 292 ng/L) and erythromycin (max = 448 ng/L) yielding the highest single measure. In general, the concentration and frequency of detecting antibiotics in the river increased during the pandemic. OC was uniquely well-suited for the wastewater epidemiology approach owing to its nature as a prodrug, recalcitrance and temporally-and spatially-resolved prescription statistics.

Antimicrobial Use and Ecotoxicological Risks from Pandemics and Epidemics

“…The degree to which this inhibition could and would be observed remains unclear as there are numerous complicating factors that make predicting inhibition of microorganisms in sewage works based on antibiotic concentrations extremely difficult to determine. All sewage works receive relatively high concentrations of a very broad mix of antibiotics all the time Singer et al, 2014). This constant influx of these drugs and antibiotic-resistant microorganisms into sewage works contributes to the resilience of sewage works as much as it can contribute to the risk of its failure.…”

Prediction, risk and control of anti-influenza drugs in the Yodo River Basin, Japan during seasonal and pandemic influenza using the transmission model for infectious disease

“…This discrepancy may be caused by the reported estimates that were obtained without evaluating the correspondence of the predicted values with the measured values, as stated by Leknes et al (Leknes et al, 2012). Application of a more appropriate model that considers the estimates for chronological transitional changes in influenza outbreak and performs correspondence evaluations against measured values will allow for the estimation of more precise concentrations of OS, OC, and ZAN in river water, as proposed by Singer et al (Singer et al, 2014).…”

“…Although the lower threshold concentration of OC for appearance of anti-influenza drug resistant virus in the water environment is not exactly determined, if around 1 g/L OC is assumed to be a threshold concentration for the emergence of anti-influenza drug resistant viruses (Chen et al, 2014;Singer et al, 2014), then the risk is small because the reported levels of OC concentrations were generally in the range of several ng/L to 864 ng/L. Thus, the possibility that drug-resistant influenza viruses could originate from wildfowl during seasonal influenza outbreaks in Japan is small (Söderström et al, 2009;Ghosh et al, 2010b;Prasse et al, 2010;Azuma et al, 2012;Chen et al, 2014;Singer et al, 2014). This study, however, revealed that it is possible that OC concentrations can be higher than 1 µg/L only during a large-scale influenza pandemic and when anti-influenza drugs are consumed in large quantities.…”

“…In recent years, an issue with the anti-influenza drug, oseltamivir (Tamiflu ® , OS), which is used to treat influenza, and its pharmacologically active metabolite (oseltamivir carboxylate: OC) being discharged into river environments has drawn significant attention (Söderström et al, 2009;Ghosh et al, 2010b;Prasse et al, 2010;Azuma et al, 2012;Azuma et al, 2013;Singer et al, 2014). Wildfowl living in river basins carry all types of the influenza virus and are in fact the origins of type A influenza, which infect and spread throughout humans, poultry and swine (Suarez and Schultz-Cherry, 2000;Wang et al, 2008).…”

“…Studies involving estimates of anti-influenza drug concentrations in river water during influenza pandemics have targeted OC concentration. The maximum estimated concentrations in the U.S. and Europe are 1 to 103 µg/L (Singer et al, 2007;Singer et al, 2008;Straub, 2009;Ellis, 2010;Singer et al, 2011;Chen et al, 2014;Singer et al, 2014); During an inter-pandemic period, Japan typically accounts for approximately 70% of the world's consumption of oseltamivir (Hoffmann-La Roche Inc. Nutley, 2005;Yasui et al, 2007;Tashiro et al, 2009). Furthermore, there are no international reports on the concentrations of ZAN; thus, estimating ZAN concentrations is an important subject for study.…”