A review of pharmaceutical occurrence and pathways in the aquatic environment in the context of a changing climate and the COVID-19 pandemic

Abstract

Active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) are increasingly being identified as contaminants of emerging concern (CECs).

COVID-19 drugs in aquatic systems: a review

“…A significant portion of the parent drugs administered to treat human infections including COVID-19, and their metabolites are excreted via urine and faeces into municipal wastewater and on-site sanitation systems. For example, about 30–90% of pharmaceuticals are not metabolized, and their residuals end up in wastewater treatment plants (O'Flynn et al 2021 ). Depending on the removal efficiency of the wastewater treatment process applied, a fraction of the drugs and their metabolites are released in effluents from wastewater treatment plants.…”

“…To date, comprehensive studies on the occurrence and dissemination of COVID-19 drugs and their metabolites in the pharmaceutical value-chain are still lacking. O'Flynn et al ( 2021 ) highlighted the life cycle assessment (LCA) of pharmaceuticals from production to release into the aquatic environment. The merits of having such LCA is that it can track the route of pharmaceuticals into the environment as well as follow the sustainable development targets of SDG 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation), SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production), and SDG 14 (Life Below water).…”

Novel CuO/Mn3O4/ZnO nanocomposite with superior photocatalytic activity for removal of Rabeprazole from water

“…Pharmaceutical substances often get into water bodies by human excretion and their inappropriate disposal of hospital waste 5 , 6 . Because of the ability to interact with living bodies, pharmaceutical wastes often impose threat to the aquatic ecosystem 7 . The increasing accumulation of pharmaceuticals marine biomes directly or indirectly affects the flora and fauna and in turn disturbs the ecological balance.…”

Electrochemical Method for Ease Determination of Sodium Diclofenac Trace Levels in Water Using Graphene—Multi-Walled Carbon Nanotubes Paste Electrode

“…Due to WWTPs being unable to completely remove or destroy such drugs during wastewater treatment, they are detected in WWTP effluents, which could be further transported into surface water [ 7 , 8 ]. For example, according to O’Flynn et al (2021), the concentration levels of diclofenac, as well as its main known metabolites (glucuronide, sulfate conjugates) [ 9 ], have reached levels of 1.8–181 µg·L −1 in WWTP influent, 1.20–24.3 µg·L −1 in WWTP effluent, 2.40–140 ng·L −1 in drinking water, 185–18,740 ng·L −1 in surface water, 3.90–14.00 ng·g −1 in sediment-river/streams, and between 4.00 and 1500 ngL −1 in sea and ocean surface water. The high-level concentrations detected in water associated with diclofenac met the condition necessary in order to propose diclofenac as a priority substance that requires mandatory testing in surface waters and other water bodies [ 9 ].…”