Assessing the protective role of alpine forests against rockfall at regional scale

Abstract

Worldwide, mountain forests represent a significant factor in reducing rockfall risk over long periods of time on large potential disposition areas. While the economic value of technical protection measures against rockfall can be clearly determined and their benefits indicated, there is no general consensus on the quantification of the protective effect of forests. Experience shows that wherever there is forest, the implementation of technical measures to reduce risk of rockfall might often be dispensable or cheaper, and large deforestations (e.g. after windthrows, forest fires, clear-cuts) often show an increased incidence of rockfall events. This study focussed on how the protective effect of a forest against rockfall can be quantified on an alpine transregional scale. We therefore estimated the runout length, in terms of the angle of reach, of 700 individual rockfall trajectories from 39 release areas from Austria, Germany, Italy and Slovenia. All recorded rockfall events passed through forests which were classified either as coppice forests or, according to the CORINE classification of land cover, as mixed, coniferous or broadleaved dominated high forest stands. For each individual rockfall trajectory, we measured the forest structural parameters stem number, basal area, top height, ratio of shrub to high forest and share of coniferous trees. To quantify the protective effect of forests on rockfall, a hazard reduction factor is introduced, defined as the ratio between an expected angle of reach without forest and the back-calculated forest-influenced angles of reach. The results show that forests significantly reduce the runout length of rockfall. The highest reduction was observed for mixed high forest stands, while the lowest hazard reduction was observed for high forest stands dominated either by coniferous or broadleaved tree species. This implies that as soon as one tree species dominates, the risk reduction factor becomes lower. Coppice forests showed the lowest variability in hazard reduction. Hazard reduction due to forests increases, on average, by 7% for an increase in the stem number by 100 stems per hectare. The proposed concept allows a global view of the effectiveness of protective forests against rockfall processes and thus enable to value forest ecosystem services for future transregional assessments on a European level. Based on our results, general cost–benefit considerations of nature-based solutions against rockfall, such as protective forests as well as first-order evaluations of rockfall hazard reduction effects of silvicultural measures within the different forest types, can be supported.

Biological Legacies and Rockfall: The Protective Effect of a Windthrown Forest

“…The role of a forested slope in the mitigation of rockfall hazard highlighted by the results of this study is aligned with the current literature [4,[30][31][32]. We could observe and quantify the reduction of rockfall passages and their energy due to the presence of a protection forest, underlining the importance of these stands for risk assessment [5].…”

Climate Change Impacts the Protective Effect of Forests: A Case Study in Switzerland

“…By combining dynamic forest modelling with rockfall risk FIGURE 10 | Mean risk for all considered elements at risk for the current forest based on field data (top; "field_data"), based on TreeMig simulations (tm) with (above; "tm_today_Dist") and without (left, "tm_today") disturbance, and for future forest scenarios in 50 (tm_50yr), 100 (tm_100yr), and 150 years (tm_150yr) under climate scenario RCP4.5 (middle) and RCP8.5 (right) (only shown with background disturbance). assessment, it provides a methodological framework that can be applied at other case study sites, where climate change has not yet been considered in the forest scenarios (Bigot et al, 2009;Moos et al, 2019a) or even be transferred to regional scale (Scheidl et al, 2020b). Our results also indicate that regular disturbances can promote regeneration, and therefore favor the transition of current species to more drought resistant ones, which may positively influence the protective function of the forest in longterm (Scheidl et al, 2020a).…”

Delimiting rockfall runout zones using reach probability values simulated with a Monte-Carlo based 3D trajectory model

“…Cliffs that are known to pose imminent rockfall threats to the underlying damage potential can be monitored using extensometers and/or remote sensing such as radar interferometry, laser scanning or photogrammetry (see Abellán et al, 2010;Derron and Jaboyedoff, 2010;Caduff et al, 2015;Farmakis et al, 2020;Guerin et al, 2020). On locations where the threat is less imminent, risk reduction is generally achieved through spatial planning, technical measures, such as rockfall dams (Lambert et al, 2013;Kanno et al, 2020) and flexible nets (Caviezel et al, 2020;Lambert et al, 2020;Tahmasbi et al, 2020), and biological measures (i.e., protection forests; Dorren et al, 2005a;Moos et al, 2017;Lanfranconi et al, 2020;Scheidl et al, 2020).…”