Aspects on the history of transmission and favor of distribution of viruses by iatrogenic action: perhaps an example of a paradigm of the worldwide spread of HIV

Abstract

Transmission of infectious agents might be associated with iatrogenic actions of charitable help in health care. An example is the vaccination against yellow fever in USA that transmitted hepatitis B virus. Another example is injections of praziquantel for treatment and cure of schistosomiasis in Central and Northern Africa, with a focus in Egypt that has spread hepatitis C virus. There is no indication that human T-lymphotropic virus type 1 was spread by injection treatment for African trypanosomiasis, syphilis and treponematosis, but these treatments might have contributed to the early spread of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) in Central Africa. Slave trade contributed as well to the spread of viruses from Africa to the Americas; it was stopped in 1850. Until that date HIV-1 was not transported to the Americas. By analysis of nucleic acid sequence data it can be concluded that the continental spread of HCV and HIV-1 might have started around 1920 with an exponential phase from 1940 to 1970. Further iatrogenic actions that promoted the spread of HCV and HIV-1 might be vaccinations to prevent deadly diseases. The successful vaccination was followed by diminution of the infectious agent in the population such as small pox, yellow fever and measles. Measurements to reduce the spread of plague and cholera were further benefits increasing survival of diseased subjects in a population. Thus, the reduction of exposure to deadly infectious agents might have given a chance to HIV-1 infected subjects to survive and for HIV-1 to be distributed around the world starting from Central Africa in the 1950s.

HIV Infection and Spread between Th17 Cells

“…HIV-1 is an enveloped retrovirus with two copies of an ssRNA genome, which enters the host primarily through mucosal surfaces, where it replicates after the integration of the newly retro-transcribed double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) [5,10,11]. Predominant routes of HIV-1 transmission include sexual contact, percutaneous (through contaminated needles and blood products), and perinatal [5,10,12]. Worldwide, about 90% of new HIV infections are attributed to sexual transmission, with most infected people being women [13][14][15].…”

SARS-CoV-2 and Human Immunodeficiency Virus: Pathogen Pincer Attack

“… 45 , 46 The elucidation of the cross-species transmission dynamics has gained attention, as well as opened doors to exploring restriction factors and intrinsic immunity as additional paradigms. 47–49 …”

“…45,46 The elucidation of the crossspecies transmission dynamics has gained attention, as well as opened doors to exploring restriction factors and intrinsic immunity as additional paradigms. [47][48][49] Viral Transmission: Deployment SARS-CoV-2 is a respiratory virus, primarily spread from person to person through respiratory droplets containing viral particles. A study reported finding viable SARS-CoV -2 virus even after 72 hours on plastic or stainless-steel surfaces, although titer was reduced from 10 3.7 to 10 0.6 TCID 50 (1259-fold reduction) for both.…”

The Manifesto of Pharmacoenosis: Merging HIV Pharmacology into Pathocoenosis and Syndemics in Developing Countries

“…Syndemic interactions may act in several ways and take place at different levels. For instance, even medical treatments can occasionally generate iatrogenic syndemics: Hepatitis B and C infections were spread involuntarily during yellow fever vaccine campaigns and mass intravenous drug administration against schistosomiasis in USA and Egypt, respectively [ 10 , 11 , 12 ]; besides, drugs to treat one disease may undermine treatments given for other reasons (such as detrimental DDIs between some antiretroviral and anti-tuberculosis drugs).…”

“…While in the past, malaria was one of the most important determinants of pathocoenosis, due to its impact on populations’ mortality and morbidity, and to its synergism with other diseases [ 6 , 8 ], HIV infection powerfully emerged in the last century. It has been hypothesised that the initial spread of the HIV pandemic in sub-Saharan Africa was likely eased by industrial evolution as well as by successful vaccine campaigns among tropical countries in the early twentieth century [ 11 , 13 ]. The HIV pandemic is a lifelong process closely entwined with unquantifiable opportunistic and non-opportunistic co-infections, non-communicable diseases, polypharmacy, poverty, marginalisation, gender inequality, malnutrition, and stigma.…”