Are the Processes Underlying Discrimination the Same for Women and Men? A Critical Review of Congruity Models of Gender Discrimination

Abstract

Although classic congruity models of gender discrimination (e.g., role congruity theory, lack of fit) predict negative outcomes for both women and men in gender-incongruent domains, the literature has focused almost exclusively on discrimination against women. A number of recent studies have begun to address the question of whether and under what circumstances men can also be the targets of gender discrimination. However, the results of these studies have so far been mixed. Therefore, the question of whether men, like women, also suffer discrimination when in gender incongruent roles and domains remains unclear. The goal of the present paper is to integrate and critically examine the burgeoning literature on gender discrimination against men in order to assess whether the symmetrical predictions of congruity models are supported. Through this close analysis and integration of the literature, I aim to identify remaining gaps in the research on gender discrimination. In particular, I propose that researchers of gender discrimination would benefit from expanding their scope beyond that of paid work.

The Racialized and Gendered Workplace: Applying an Intersectional Lens to a Field Experiment on Hiring Discrimination in Five European Labor Markets

“…As extensively documented in the literature on gender stereotypes (Ellemers 2018; Heilman 2012; Manzi 2019), people conform to descriptive stereotypes, namely, widely shared beliefs of what groups do, of their typical behavior. In regard to gender, people tend to associate agentic (achievement-oriented) characteristics, such as assertiveness, autonomy, decisiveness, and competence, to men and communal (social- and service-oriented) characteristics, such as warmth, kindness, and empathy, to women.…”

Gender at Work Across Nations: Men and Women Working in Male‐Dominated and Female‐Dominated Occupations are Differentially Associated with Agency and Communion

“…Research on gender‐based discrimination of men in female‐dominated occupations is relatively recent and has been conducted predominantly in Western nations (e.g., Croft et al., 2015; Manzi, 2019). Although men are underrepresented in nurturing and caretaking occupations, results on whether men in gender‐incongruent occupational domains are discriminated against are mixed and thus currently inconclusive (for a review, see Manzi, 2019). Croft et al.…”

Powerless Conservatives or Powerless Findings?

“…These null results are less likely to be published, showing that differential rates of publication are not due to nefarious ideological biases of gatekeepers but rather to a different (and likely more pervasive) type of bias in political science: bias against publishing null results, especially imprecisely estimated nulls. Of course, this is only one example of the file-drawer problem; previous studies of bias against men have found similarly mixed results (Manzi 2019).…”

“…Indeed, Schmitt et al (2002) provided a good example of the potential for the file-drawer problem to occur when they found that perceptions of discrimination have a negative effect on the psychological well-being among women but have no effect among men. Manzi (2019) provided an in-depth review of numerous studies that examined gender discrimination against men from various social science disciplines. Manzi (2019) noted that the results of these existing studies are mixed, again suggesting that there may be a simpler, less nefarious explanation for the relative dearth of studies about gender bias against men compared to gender bias against women.…”

“…Manzi (2019) provided an in-depth review of numerous studies that examined gender discrimination against men from various social science disciplines. Manzi (2019) noted that the results of these existing studies are mixed, again suggesting that there may be a simpler, less nefarious explanation for the relative dearth of studies about gender bias against men compared to gender bias against women. 1 That is, studies examining gender bias against men do not produce statistically significant results as often as studies of gender bias against women, making them less likely to be published.…”