Are Short Chain Fatty Acids in Gut Microbiota Defensive Players for Inflammation and Atherosclerosis?

Abstract

Intestinal flora (microbiota) have recently attracted attention among lipid and carbohydrate metabolism researchers. Microbiota metabolize resistant starches and dietary fibers through fermentation and decomposition, and provide short chain fatty acids (SCFAs) to the host. The major SCFAs acetates, propionate and butyrate, have different production ratios and physiological activities. Several receptors for SCFAs have been identified as the G-protein coupled receptor 41/free fatty acid receptor 3 (GPR41/FFAR3), GPR43/FFAR2, GPR109A, and olfactory receptor 78, which are present in intestinal epithelial cells, immune cells, and adipocytes, despite their expression levels differing between tissues and cell types. Many studies have indicated that SCFAs exhibit a wide range of functions from immune regulation to metabolism in a variety of tissues and organs, and therefore have both a direct and indirect influence on our bodies. This review will focus on SCFAs, especially butyrate, and their effects on various inflammatory mechanisms including atherosclerosis. In the future, SCFAs may provide new insights into understanding the pathophysiology of chronic inflammation, metabolic disorders, and atherosclerosis, and we can expect the development of novel therapeutic strategies for these diseases.

The Potential of Probiotics in the Prevention and Treatment of Atherosclerosis

“…Probiotics are "good" bacteria that may be exploited for their ability to combat dysbiosis and promote gut health . Probiotic bacteria have beneficial effects on the host by producing vitamins K and B2, together with SCFAs such as acetate, butyrate, or propionate, which are used as fuel by the intestinal flora and colonocytes . Indeed, bacterial butyrate has been shown to prevent atherosclerosis in mouse model systems .…”

“…Mechanisms of immunomodulation have also been investigated and thought to be achieved via changes in cytokine production and modulation of associated signaling pathways in intestinal epithelial and immune cells . This has been demonstrated via probiotic release of bioactive metabolites and immunomodulatory factors . SCFAs, such as butyrate, propionate, and acetate, produced by the probiotic bacteria have multiple anti‐atherogenic actions .…”

“…This has been demonstrated via probiotic release of bioactive metabolites and immunomodulatory factors . SCFAs, such as butyrate, propionate, and acetate, produced by the probiotic bacteria have multiple anti‐atherogenic actions . Butyrate in particular has been shown to decrease adhesion of monocytes to the activated endothelium and the expression of pro‐inflammatory cytokines and adhesion proteins by inhibiting the cytoplasmic to nuclear translocation of nuclear factor‐κB (NF‐κB) .…”

Progress and perspectives of short‐chain fatty acids in aquaculture

“…However, it is somewhat difficult to assess the ratios of SCFAs since their production involves the other types of fermentation substrates (Ohira et al . ). Obviously, the synthesis of SCFAs depends on the microbial composition and environmental conditions (i.e.…”

“…; Ohira et al . ). In fish, acetate is transported into the portal blood and used as energy source for skeletal muscle or for lipid synthesis (Asaduzzaman et al .…”