Antiretroviral Drugs in Water: An African Challenge with Kenya and South Africa as Hotspots and Plausible Remediation Strategies

Zitha, Andile Bheki; Ncube, Somandla; Mketo, Nomvano; Nyoni, Hlengilizwe; Madikizela, Lawrence Mzukisi

doi:10.1007/s42250-022-00417-1

Cited by 10 publications

(9 citation statements)

References 94 publications

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“…This is expected in countries that are located outside the borders of the African continent where this drug is highly prescribed to HIV-positive people. As a result, the studies on environmental monitoring of efavirenz are more intense in South Africa and Kenya than anywhere in the world . However, this narrative should change considering that this antiretroviral drug has been detected in the coastal waters of Belgium .…”

Section: Resultsmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…As a result, the studies on environmental monitoring of efavirenz are more intense in South Africa and Kenya than anywhere in the world. 23 However, this narrative should change considering that this antiretroviral drug has been detected in the coastal waters of Belgium. 24 Even in the two African countries (South Africa and Kenya) where efavirenz is constantly detected in water systems, its monitoring in seawater has been neglected.…”

Section: Resultsmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Occurrence of Selected Pharmaceuticals in the East London Coastline Encompassing Major Rivers, Estuaries, and Seawater in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa

Netshithothole,

Madikizela

2024

ACS Meas. Sci. Au

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This study investigated the occurrence of ibuprofen, naproxen, sulfamethoxazole, trimethoprim, and efavirenz in water resources (river, estuarine, and sea waters) of the East London coastline, South Africa. These pharmaceuticals were previously reported to be dominant in wastewater and inland rivers of South Africa. Hence, it is important to monitor their occurrence in the coastal and marine environment. The pharmaceuticals of interest were extracted with a solid-phase extraction method and analyzed by using a liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry instrument. The analytical method was validated by spiking the environmental samples with a mixture of pharmaceuticals at two concentration levels (5 and 15 μg L −1 ). The analytical method yielded acceptable recoveries ranging from 75 to 107%, with method quantitation limits from 0.16 to 9.44 ng of L −1 . All five targeted pharmaceuticals were detected in seawater samples, with ibuprofen recording the highest concentration of 90 ng L −1 . However, it was efavirenz and sulfamethoxazole with the highest concentrations of 572 and 60 ng L −1 , respectively, in the Gonubie River that showed high ecotoxicological risks toward the aquatic organisms. There were no risks associated with the occurrence of other targeted pharmaceuticals. The suspect screening showed the occurrence of 57 additional pharmaceuticals in samples, with antibiotics being more dominant. The results of the present study demonstrate a need to perform a more robust investigation on the occurrence of a wide range of pharmaceuticals along the South African coasts.

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Section: Resultsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Resultsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Occurrence of Selected Pharmaceuticals in the East London Coastline Encompassing Major Rivers, Estuaries, and Seawater in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa

Netshithothole,

Madikizela

2024

ACS Meas. Sci. Au

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“…Interestingly, two antiretroviral drugs (ARVs), abacavir and tenofovir, were detected in both influent and effluent wastewaters. Antiretrovirals are members of a relatively new class of CECs, which are potentially of key importance in the African continent because more than 19 million people are on treatments for HIV/AIDS (Zitha et al, 2022). Despite this high prevalence, monitoring of ARVs in environmental waters is fairly recent and remains limited to Kenya (K'oreje et al, 2012, 2020; Ngumba et al, 2016), South Africa (Mosekiemang et al, 2019; Olabode, 2021; Wooding et al, 2017), and Zambia (Ngumba et al, 2020).…”

Section: Resultsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Nontargeted Screening of Contaminants of Emerging Concern in the Glen Valley Wastewater Treatment Plant, Botswana

Selwe,

Sallach,

Dessent

2023

Enviro Toxic and Chemistry

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Abstract:There is growing concern about the prevalence and impact of Contaminants of Emerging Concern (CECs). The environmental monitoring of CECs has, however, been limited in low‐ and middle‐income countries due to the lack of advanced analytical instrumentation locally. In this study we employed a non‐targeted and suspect screening workflow via liquid‐chromatography coupled with high resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) to identify known and unknown pollutants in the Glen Valley wastewater treatment plant, Botswana, complemented by analysis of groundwater samples. This work represents the first HRMS analysis of CECs in water samples obtained in Botswana.Suspect screening of 5942 compounds qualitatively identified 28 compounds, including 26 pharmaceuticals and two illicit drugs (2‐Ethylmethcathinone and 11‐nor‐9‐carboxy‐Δ9‐tetrahydrocannabinol). Non‐targeted analysis tentatively identified the presence of 34 more compounds including (5ξ)‐12,13‐Dihydroxypodocarpa‐8,11,13‐trien‐7‐one; 12‐Aminododecanoic acid, Atenolol acid; Brilliant blue; Cyclo leucylprolyl; Decanophenone; DL‐Carnitine; N,N'‐Dicyclohexylurea; N4‐Acetylsulfamethoxazole; NP‐003672 and 24 Polyethylene Glycol (PEG) polymers. The highest number of detections were in influent wastewater (26 CECs) followed by effluent wastewater (10 CECs) and lastly, groundwater (4 CECs). 17 CECs detected in the influent water were not detected in the effluent waters, suggesting reduced emissions due to wastewater treatment. Two anti‐retroviral compounds (abacavir and tenofovir) were detected in the influent and effluent sources. This suggests that wastewater treatment plants are a major pathway of chemical pollution to the environment in Botswana and will help inform prioritisation efforts for monitoring and remediation that is protective of these key ecosystems.

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“…21,22 There are few review articles that have entirely focussed on the occurrence of pharmaceuticals in South African water systems. [23][24][25] Some of these review articles focussed on selected therapeutic groups of pharmaceuticals, 25,26 while also reviewing emerging contaminants in general in a South African context. 23 Therefore, the aim of this article was to provide more comprehensive information on the analytical methods developed in South Africa to monitor pharmaceuticals in South African water systems.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

A journey of 10 years in analytical method development and environmental monitoring of pharmaceuticals in South African waters

Madikizela

2023

S.Afr.j.chem.

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Apart from the studies which reported the occurrence of steroid hormones and antibiotics in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) back in 2004, 2007 and 2012, the evidence for monitoring of pharmaceuticals in South African water bodies intensified from 2014. Therefore, this study reviewed the analytical methods developed and applied in South Africa for the purpose of monitoring pharmaceuticals and their metabolites in water. At the same time, pharmaceuticals and their metabolites detected in South African waters are reviewed. To date, there is over 100 pharmaceuticals detected in South African waters with most studies focussing on quantitative analysis of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID), antibiotics, antiretroviral drugs and carbamazepine. Various sources of pharmaceuticals in the environment are reported, with WWTPs found as the major contributor to their occurrence in South African rivers. Notably, a NSAID, ibuprofen, with concentrations found exceeding 100 μg L-1 in selected WWTPs has also been found at high levels reaching 60 μg L-1 in river water. Mostly, pharmaceuticals detected in wastewater are also reported in corresponding rivers. The present review details pharmaceuticals that should be included in environmental monitoring studies performed in South Africa, while also identifying areas for future research through the research gap analysis.

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Antiretroviral Drugs in Water: An African Challenge with Kenya and South Africa as Hotspots and Plausible Remediation Strategies

Cited by 10 publications

References 94 publications

Occurrence of Selected Pharmaceuticals in the East London Coastline Encompassing Major Rivers, Estuaries, and Seawater in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa

Occurrence of Selected Pharmaceuticals in the East London Coastline Encompassing Major Rivers, Estuaries, and Seawater in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa

Nontargeted Screening of Contaminants of Emerging Concern in the Glen Valley Wastewater Treatment Plant, Botswana

A journey of 10 years in analytical method development and environmental monitoring of pharmaceuticals in South African waters

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