A journey of 10 years in analytical method development and environmental monitoring of pharmaceuticals in South African waters

Abstract

Apart from the studies which reported the occurrence of steroid hormones and antibiotics in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) back in 2004, 2007 and 2012, the evidence for monitoring of pharmaceuticals in South African water bodies intensified from 2014. Therefore, this study reviewed the analytical methods developed and applied in South Africa for the purpose of monitoring pharmaceuticals and their metabolites in water. At the same time, pharmaceuticals and their metabolites detected in South African waters are reviewed. To date, there is over 100 pharmaceuticals detected in South African waters with most studies focussing on quantitative analysis of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID), antibiotics, antiretroviral drugs and carbamazepine. Various sources of pharmaceuticals in the environment are reported, with WWTPs found as the major contributor to their occurrence in South African rivers. Notably, a NSAID, ibuprofen, with concentrations found exceeding 100 μg L-1 in selected WWTPs has also been found at high levels reaching 60 μg L-1 in river water. Mostly, pharmaceuticals detected in wastewater are also reported in corresponding rivers. The present review details pharmaceuticals that should be included in environmental monitoring studies performed in South Africa, while also identifying areas for future research through the research gap analysis.

Occurrence of Selected Pharmaceuticals in the East London Coastline Encompassing Major Rivers, Estuaries, and Seawater in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa

“…All pharmaceuticals under examination have been previously found present in South African waters . However, the extent of their occurrence in South African waterbodies and their fate have always been overlooked as most studies on their investigation focused largely on wastewater and surface water from inland sources.…”

“…All pharmaceuticals under examination have been previously found present in South African waters. 6 However, the extent of their occurrence in South African waterbodies and their fate have always been overlooked as most studies on their investigation focused largely on wastewater and surface water from inland sources. This study revealed an important aspect: the same pharmaceuticals found in inland waters are carried through the rivers into the estuaries and eventually make their way into the ocean.…”

“…But it took at least two additional decades before the same chemicals were measured in the African water systems. The research on environmental monitoring of pharmaceuticals in South Africa has become more intense over the past decade . In this case, pharmaceuticals that gained more interest were those belonging to the therapeutic classes of antibiotics, antiretroviral drugs, and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs).…”

“…The research on environmental monitoring of pharmaceuticals in South Africa has become more intense over the past decade. 6 In this case, pharmaceuticals that gained more interest were those belonging to the therapeutic classes of antibiotics, antiretroviral drugs, and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). In South Africa, these pharmaceuticals are mostly monitored in wastewater and surface water.…”

Occurrence of selected pharmaceuticals in wastewater and sludge samples from wastewater treatment plants in Eastern Cape province of South Africa

“…30 The high detection frequency for NSAIDs (ibuprofen and naproxen) is common in South African water systems as these are overthe-counter medications. 31,32 The decreased concentrations of these analytes in effluent samples indicated that certain amounts were eliminated during the wastewater treatment processes. For instance, neither ibuprofen nor naproxen were detected in effluent samples from WWTP 4.…”